By Bertrand Russell
WHAT SHALL WE EDUCATE FOR?by Bertrand Russell in his Education and the Good Life, as reprinted in Walter Lippmann and Allan Nevins:A Modern Reader, Boston, D. C. Heath and Company, 1936, pp. 473-477.
Bertrand Russell （1872-1970）, later Earl Russell, English journalist, public speaker, and political thinker. After 1918 he lectured at Peking University. While traveling, lecturing, and studying the civilizations of Soviet Russia, China, the United States, and Europe, he has hammered out in detail his view of the future of mankind—lucidly expressed in Proposed Roads to Freedom, Education and the Good Life, and The Prospects of Industrial Civilization. He believes in combining industrialism with leisure, inpidual liberty, and the cultivation of art. He believes that this new civilization may easily be created if mankind will but establish three bases for it: first, a more equal distribution of goods; second, the abolition of war; third, the acceptance of a stationary or but slowly rising level of population.
Traditional Chinese education was, in some respects, very similar to that of Athens in its best days. Athenian boys were made to learn Homer by heart from beginning to end; Chinese boys were made to learn the Confucian classics with similar thoroughness. Athenians were taught a kind of reverence for the gods which consisted in outward observances and placed no barrier in the way of free intellectual speculation. Similarly, the Chinese were taught certain rites connected with ancestor-worship, but were by no means obliged to have the beliefs which the rites would seem to imply. An easy and elegant skepticism was the attitude expected of an educated adult;anything might be discussed, but it was a trifle vulgar to reach very positive conclusions. Opinions should be such as could be discussed pleasantly at dinner, not such as man would fight for. Carlyle calls Plato 「a lordly Athenian gentleman, very much at his ease in Zion.」 This characteristic of being 「at his ease in Zion」 is found also in Chinese sages, and is, as a rule, absent from the sages produced by Christian civilizations, except when, like Goethe, they have deeply imbibed the spirit of Hellenism. The Athenians and the Chinese alike wished to enjoy life, and had a conception of enjoyment which was refined by an exquisite sense of beauty.
There were, however, great differences between the two civilizations, owing to the fact that, broadly speaking, the Greeks were energetic and the Chinese were lazy. The Greeks devoted their energies to art and science and mutual extermination—in all of which they achieved unprecedented success. Politics and patriotism afforded practical outlets for Greek energy: when a politician was ousted he led a band of exiles to attack his native city. When a Chinese official was disgraced he retired to the hills and wrote poems on the pleasures of country life. Accordingly, the Greek civilization destroyed itself, but the Chinese civilization could be destroyed only from without. These differences, however, seemed not wholly attributable to education, since Confucianism in Japan never produced the indolent cultured skepticism which characterized the Chinese literati, except in the Kyoto nobility, who formed a kind of Faubourg Saint Germain.
Chinese education produced stability and art; it failed to produce progress or science. Perhaps this may be taken as what is to be expected of skepticism. Passionate beliefs produce either progress or disaster, not stability. Science, even when it attacks traditional beliefs, has beliefs of its own, and can scarcely flourish in an atmosphere of literary skepticism. In a pugnacious world, which has been unified by modern inventions, energy is needed for national self-preservation. And without science democracy is impossible: the Chinese civilization was confined to the small percentage of educated men and the Greek civilization was based on slavery. For these reasons the traditional education of China is not suited to the modern world, and has been abandoned by the Chinese themselves. Cultivated eighteenth-century gentlemen, who in some respects resembled Chinese literati, have become impossible for the same reasons.
Modern Japan affords the clearest illustration of a tendency which is prominent among all the Great Powers—the tendency to make national greatness the supreme purpose of education. The aim of Japanese education is to produce citizens who shall be devoted to the state through the training of their passions, and useful to it through the knowledge they have acquired. I cannot sufficiently praise the skill with which this double purpose has been pursued. Ever since the advent of Commodore Perry\'s squadron the Japanese have been in a situation in which self-preservation was very difficult; their success affords a justification of their methods, unless we are to hold that self-preservation itself may be culpable. But only a desperate situation could have justified their educational methods, which would have been culpable in any nation not in imminent peril. The Shinto religion, which must not be called in question even by university professors, involves history just as dubious as Genesis; the Dayton trial pales into insignificance beside the theological tyranny in Japan. There is an equal ethical tyranny; nationalism, filial piety, Mikado-worship, etc., must not be called in question, and, therefore, many kinds of progress are scarcely possible. The great danger of a cast-iron system of this sort is that it may provoke revolution as the sole method of progress. This danger is real, though not immediate, and is largely caused by the educational system.
We have thus in modern Japan a defect opposite to that of ancient China. Whereas the Chinese literati were too skeptical and lazy, the products of Japanese education are likely to be too dogmatic and energetic. Neither acquiescence in skepticism nor acquiescence in dogma is what education should produce. What it should produce is a belief that knowledge is attainable in a measure, though with difficulty;that much of what passes for knowledge at any given time is likely to be more or less mistaken, but that the mistakes can be rectified by care and industry. In acting upon our beliefs, we should be very cautious where a small error would mean disaster; nevertheless, it is upon our beliefs that we must act. This state of mind is rather difficult: it requires a high degree of intellectual culture without emotional atrophy. But though difficult, it is not impossible; it is in fact the scientific temper. Knowledge, like other good things, is difficult, but not impossible; the dogmatist forgets the difficulty, the skeptic denies the possibility. Both are mistaken, and their errors, when widespread, produce social disaster.
Doctor Arnold\'s system, which has remained in force in English public schools to the present day, had another defect:namely, that it was aristocratic. The aim was to train men for positions of authority and power, whether at home or in distant parts of the Empire. An aristocracy, if it is to survive, needs certain virtues; these were to be imparted at school. The product was to be energetic, stoical, physically fit, possessed of certain unalterable beliefs, with high standards of rectitude, and convinced that it had an important mission in the world. To a surprising extent, these results were achieved. Intellect was sacrificed to them, because intellect might produce doubt. Sympathy was sacrificed, because it might interfere with governing 「inferior」 races or classes. Kindliness was sacrificed for the sake of toughness; imagination, for the sake of firmness.
In an unchanging world the result might have been a permanent aristocracy, possessing the merits and defects of the Spartans. But aristocracy is out of date, and subject populations will no longer obey even the most wise and virtuous rulers. The rulers are driven into brutality, and brutality further encourages revolt. The complexity of the modern world increasingly requires intelligence, and Doctor Arnold sacrificed intelligence to 「virtue.」 The battle of Waterloo may have been won on the playing fields of Eton, but the British Empire is being lost there. The modern world needs a different type, with more imaginative sympathy, more intellectual suppleness, less belief in bulldog courage and more belief in technical knowledge. The administrator of the future must be the servant of free citizens, not the benevolent ruler of admiring subjects. The aristocratic tradition embedded in British higher education is its bane. Perhaps this tradition can be eliminated gradually; perhaps the older educational institutions will be found incapable of adapting themselves. As to that, I do not venture an opinion.
The American public schools achieve successfully a task never before attempted on a large scale: the task of transforming a heterogeneous selection of mankind into a homogeneous nation. This is done so ably, and is, on the whole, such a beneficent work, that on the balance great praise is due to those who accomplish it. But America, like Japan, is placed in a peculiar position, and what the special circumstances justify is not necessarily an ideal to be followed everywhere and always. America has had certain advantages and certain difficulties. Among the advantages were: a higher standard of wealth; freedom from the danger of defeat in war;comparative absence of cramping traditions inherited from the Middle Ages. Immigrants found in America a generally diffused sentiment of democracy and an advanced stage of industrial technique. These, I think, are the two chief reasons why almost all of them came to admire America more than their native countries. But actual immigrants, as a rule, retain a dual patriotism: in European struggles they continue to take passionately the side of the nation to which they originally belonged. Their children, on the contrary, lose all loyalty to the country from which their parents have come and become merely and simple Americans. The attitude of the parents is attributable to the general merits of America; that of the children is very largely determined by their school education. It is only the contribution of the school that concerns us.
In so far as the school can rely upon the genuine merits of America, there is no need to associate the teaching of American patriotism with the inculcation of false standards. But where the Old World is superior to the New, it becomes necessary to instill a contempt for genuine excellencies. The intellectual level in Western Europe and the artistic level in Eastern Europe are, on the whole, higher than in America. Throughout Western Europe, except in Spain and Portugal, there is less theological superstition than in America. In almost all European countries the inpidual is less subject to herd domination than in America: his inner freedom is greater even where his political freedom is less. In these respects the American public schools do harm. The harm is essential to the teaching of an exclusive American Patriotism. The harm, as with the Japanese, comes from regarding the pupils as means to an end, not as ends in themselves. The teacher should love his children better than his state; otherwise he is not an ideal teacher.
Notes
Athens, the capital city of ancient Greece, the center of Greek culture.
Homer, who lived about the ninth century before Christ, the greatest of the Greek epic poets, credited with being the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey.
barrier, obstacles; anything that impedes the progress.
skepticism, suspension of judgment, questioning the truth of facts and the soundness of inferences; incredulous criticism.
vulgar, coarse; low; characteristic of the common people.
Carlyle, Thomas （1795-1881）, Scottish essayist and historian.
Plato （427-347 B.C.）, Greek philosopher.
at his ease in Zion. Zion was the holy hill of ancient Jerusalem, in Jewish theology, but by extension came to mean the Heavenly Jerusalem or the Kingdom of Heaven. Here, the word means heavenly kingdom. A man who is at his ease in heaven is a very self-possessed man, a man who is very composed, who looks at life steadily and calmly.
Goethe （1749-1832）, German poet and author.
imbibed, drunk in; assimilated; taken in and made part of his own.
mutual extermination, killing off one another; rooting out one another.
literati, men of letters; the learned class.
the Kyoto nobility, those who belong to the noble families of Kyoto, the western capital of Japan. These nobles were the most aristocrat of their kind and took on a cultured skepticism.
Faubourg Saint Germain, in the suburban part of Paris, the aristocratic quarter of Paris.
pugnacious, disposed to fight; quarrelsome.
cultivated eighteenth-century gentlemen. English eighteenth-century gentlemen developed the nice graces of conduct, avoided passionate outburst, tried to be cultivated, civilized.
advent, arrival.
Commodore Perry, Matthew Calbraith （1794-1858）, American naval officer who sailed his squadron of ships into the Bay of Tokyo in 1852 and opened Japan to western influence.
culpable, blameworthy; can be held to blame.
imminent, about to happen soon; impending.
Shinto religion, 「way of the gods,」 Japanese religion partly ousted by Buddhism, but now the national religion.
dubious, unreliable; questionable.
Genesis, the first book of the Christian Bible, deals with the formation of the earth and of all the living things. This explanation of the genesis or origin of things we do not agree with to-day.
the Dayton trial. A teacher was arrested and put on trial for teaching the theory of evolution in a class in biology in a high school in Dayton, in the southwestern part of the state of Ohio, one of the central states of the United States of America. Because of the nature of the accusation against the teacher, the trial attracted nation-wide interest in America, and some of the ablest legal authorities of America took part in the court trial. The teacher was found guilty of teaching doctrines contrary to the laws of that part of the country, laws which insisted that only the explanation as given in the Book of Genesis of the Bible should be taught to the young.
Mikado-worship, worship of the Mikado, the emperor of Japan.
etc.,the abbreviation for the Latin et cetera, meaning 「and others.」
cast-iron system, a system that is as rigid, unadaptable, hard to change or mold, as cast iron.
acquiescence, an agreement that is understood without being said; a tacit agreement.
rectified, put right; corrected; amended.
emotional atrophy, wasting away the emotions through imperfect nourishment; emotional emaciation.
Doctor Arnold\'s system. Dr. Thomas Arnold （1795-1842）, English historian and teacher, master of Rugby, one of the select middle schools of English （public schools, these select middle schools of England are called） was in the main responsible for the path that these public schools of England have followed all these years.
the Empire, the British Empire.
imparted, taught; communicated.
stoical, possessed of great self-control or fortitude or austerity.
the Spartans, natives of Sparta, especially with allusion to the supposed characteristics of Spartans, their endurance, their simplicity, their stoicism.
the battle of Waterloo, fought on June 18, 1815, at Waterloo, 9 miles southeast of Brussels, Belgium, where Napoleon was so decisively defeated and finally captured. The Duke of Wellington led the victorious armies, and the English officers under him were all graduates of the public schools of England, the Duke himself being a graduate from Eton Public School. The English officers attributed their success to their early training in rugby and cricket, especially to the lessons in fair play and courage.
bulldog courage. The bulldog, a powerful and courageous large-headed smooth-haired breed of dog, is noted for being tenacious and courageous. The English claim that they possess that sort of bulldog courage and tenacity.
bane, poison or cause of ruin.
heterogeneous, perse in character; composed of perse elements.
homogeneous, consisting of parts all of the same kind; uniform.
cramping traditions, customs or beliefs handed down that are difficult to accept and therefore hinder progress.
immigrants, persons who come into a country. Those who leave a country are known as emigrants.
a dual patriotism, a double or twofold patriotism. The immigrants to America are still loyal to their mother country, the country that they have left behind them, and at the same time they have come to be loyal to America, the country of their adoption. This being loyal to two countries at the same time is called dual patriotism.
inculcation, impression; learning; acquiring.
Old World, Europe and England; different from the New World, which is America.
instill, infuse; develop gradually.
herd domination, control as determined by the large mass of people. The word herd is here used in a contemptuous sense, implying that such domination is not desirable.
Questions
l. Compare traditional Chinese education with that of Athens in its best days. What are the great differences between the two civilizations?
2. Why is the traditional education of China not suited to the modern world?
3. What is the aim in Japanese education?
4. What is the defect with the Japanese type of education?
5. What is the aim of the English type of education?
6. What defect do we find with this English system?
7. What task has the American public school system successfully achieved?
8. What two advantages has America had?
9. What three difficulties confront American schools?
10. What should the teacher love better, his children or the state?
參考譯文
【作品簡介】
《教育的目的》一文選自伯特蘭·羅素所著《教育與美好生活》，後收入沃爾特·李普曼及阿蘭·內文斯編寫的《現代讀本》，由波士頓的D. C．赫斯出版公司1936年出版，473—477頁。
【作者簡介】
伯特蘭·羅素（1872—1970），現稱羅素伯爵，英國記者、公共演說家、政治思想家。1918年曾在北京大學發表演講。在遊歷、講學與研究蘇俄、中國、美國和歐洲文明的過程中，詳細描繪了他對人類未來的思考——並在《通往自由之路》《教育與美好生活》，以及《工業文明之將來》三本著作中深入淺出地闡述了這一思考。他主張將工業主義與休閒、個人自由和藝術修養結合起來，認為如果人類可以建立三個基石，就可以輕而易舉地建立起這種新型文明：首先，更加公平的商品分配；第二，消除戰爭；第三，接受穩定但緩慢增長的人口水平。