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第二章

普通讀者如果想對復活節島有個大概的認識,可從下面三本書著手:John Flenley與Paul Bahn合著的The Enigmas of Easter Island(New York:Oxford University Press, 2003),這本書的舊版是Easter Island, Earth Island(London:Thames and Hudson, 1992);還有Jo Anne Van Tilburg寫的Easter Island:Archaeology,Ecology, and Culture(Washington, D.C.:Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994)和Among Stone Giants(New York:Scribner, 2003)。最後要提及的書是Katherine Routledge寫的自傳,這位偉大的英國考古學家在1914—1915年到復活節島採訪島民,記錄了島民記憶中最後的奧隆戈宗教儀式。她的一生宛如一本精彩紛呈的小說。

近年來出版的和復活節島相關的書還有以下兩本:Catherine 和Michel Orliac合著的The Silent Gods:Mysteries of Easter Island(London:Thames and Hudson, 1995), 還有John Loret和John Tancredi共同編輯的Easter Island:Scientific Exploration into the World's Environmental Problems in Microcosm(New York:Kluwer/Plenum, 2003),書中有13個章節論述了近年來科學家們在島上考察的結果。此外,對復活節島有濃厚興趣的人還可以參閱兩本出版較早的經典著作:Katherine Routledge寫的The Mystery of Easter Island(London:Sifton Praed, 1919, reprinted by Adventure Unlimited Press, Kempton, Ⅲ, 1998), 以及Alfred Metraux寫的Ethnology of Easter Island(Honolulu:Bishop Museum Bullentin 160, 1940, reprinted 1971)。此外,Eric Kjellgren編輯的Splendid Isolation:Art of Easter Island(New York:Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2001)收錄了十幾張照片,很多是彩圖,有復活節島的石雕、朗格朗格板、穆埃·卡瓦卡瓦的小雕像、穿樹皮布的人,還有紅羽毛做的頭飾,紅色石帽普卡奧的靈感也許正來源於此。

Jo Anne Van Tilburg的論文包括「Easter Island(Rapa Nui)archaeology since 1955:some thoughts on progress, problems and potential,」pp.555-577,收錄於J.M.Davidson等人編輯的Oceanic Culture History:Essays in Honour of Roger Green(New Zealand Journal of Archaeology Special Publication, 1996);她和Cristian Arevalo Pakarati合寫的「The Rapanui carvers』perspective:notes and observations on the experimental replication of monolithic sculpture(moai),」被收錄在A.Herle等人編輯的Pacific Art:Persistence, Change and Meaning(Bathurst, Australia:Crawford House, 2002)一書中;她與Ted Ralston合寫的「Megaliths and mariners:experimental archaeology on Easter Island(Rapa Nui)」這篇論文被收錄在K.L.Johnson編輯的Onward and Upward!Papers in Honor of Clement W.Meighan(University Press of America)。上面提到的後兩篇論文描述了考古學家為了弄明白石像的雕刻、搬運過程和搬運時間所做的實驗研究。

適合大眾閱讀的有關波利尼西亞聚落的好書很多,其中包括Patrick Kirch寫的On the Road of the Winds:An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands Before European Contact(Berkeley:University of California Press, 2000)、The Lapita Peoples:Ancestors of the Oceanic World(Oxford:Blackwell, 1997),以及The Evolution of the Polynesian Chiefdoms(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1984);Peter Bellwood寫的The Polynesians:Prehistory of an Island People(修訂版)(London:Thames and Hudson, 1987);Geoffrey Irwin的The Prehistoric Exploration and Colonisation of the Pacific(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1992)。David Lewis的We, the Navigators(Honolulu:University Press of Hawaii, 1972)對傳統太平洋航海技術有獨特的描述。作者本人是個現代航海家,他和僅存的尚在使用傳統航海技術的土著們一起遠航,以此研究傳統的航海技術。Patrick Kirch和Terry Hunt共同編輯的Historical Ecology in the Pacific Islands:Prehistoric Environmental and Landscape Change(New Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press, 1997)收錄了多篇論文探討在復活節島等太平洋群島上,人類對生態環境的影響。

Thor Heyerdahl的兩本書引發了我和許多人對復活節島的興趣。一本是The Kon-Tiki Expedition(London:Alien & Unwin, 1950),還有一本是Aku-Aku:The Secret of Easter Island(London:Alien & Unwin, 1958)。Heyerdahl帶考古學家們去復活節島進行挖掘考察,因此對復活節島有與眾不同的詮釋,見Thor Heyerdahl與E.Ferdon, Jr.共同編輯的Reports of the Norwegian Archaeological Expedition to Easter Island and the East Pacific, vol.1:The Archaeology of Easter Island(London:Alien & Unwin, 1961)。Steven Fischer寫的Glyph Breaker(New York:Copernicus,1997)和Rongorongo:The Easter Island Script(Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1997)這兩本描述了Fischer如何解讀朗格朗格文字。Andrew Sharp編輯的The Journal of Jacob Roggeveen(London:Oxford University Press, 1970)reprints on pp.89-106有第一個來到復活節島歐洲人的第一眼印象的描述。

Claudio Cristino、Patricia Vargas與R.Izaurieta合著的Atlas Arqueologico de Isia de Pascua(Santiago:University of Chile, 1981)復活節島的考古研究做了一番總結。關於復活節島,更詳細的信息可以參看Easter Island Foundation定期出版的期刊Rapa Nui Journal,該基金會偶爾也出版關於復活節島的研討會論文集。重要的論文集有Claudio Cristino、Patricia Vargas等人編輯的First International Congress, Easter Island and East Polynesia, vol.1 Archaeology(Santiago:University of Chile, 1988);Patricia Vargas Casanova編輯的Easter Island and East Polynesia Prehistory(Santiago:University of Chile, 1998);還有Christopher Stevenson、William Ayres合編的Easter Island Archaeology:Research on Early Rapanui Culture(Los Osos, Calif.:Easter Island Foundation, 2000)。有關不同文化碰觸的歷史可以參考Claudio Cristino等人的Isla de Pascua:Procesos, Alcances y Efectos de la Aculturacion(Easter Island:University of Chile, 1984)。

David Steadman的鳥類骨頭辨析報告以及在安納克那海灘的考古發現見下面三篇論文:「Extinctions of birds in Eastern Polynesia:a review of the record, and comparisons with other Pacific Island groups」(Journal of Archaeological Science 16:177-205(1989))與「Stratigraphy, chronology, and cultural context of an early faunal assemblage from Easter Island」(Asian Perspectives 33:79-96(1994)),這兩篇論文的合作者都是Patricia Vargas和Claudio Cristino;還有「Prehistoric extinctions of Pacific Island birds;biopersity meets zooarchaeology」(Science 267:1123-1131(1995))。William Ayres在「Easter Island subsistence」(Journal de la Societedes Oceanistes 80:103-124(1985))一文中對於島民的食物提供了更進一步的考古證據。針對復活節島棕櫚樹消失之謎的解釋和湖底沉積物樣本的花粉研究見下列論文:J.R.Flenley 和Sarah King合寫的「Late Quaternary pollen records from Easter Island」(Nature 307:47-50(1984));J.Dransfielf 等人寫的「A recently extinct palm from Easter Island」(Nature 312:750-752(1984));以及J.R.Flenley等人共同發表的「The Late Quaternary vegetational and climatic history of Ester Island」(Journal of Quaternary Science 6:85-115(1991))。Catherine Orliac的研究結果見上述Stevenson與Ayres編輯的論文集,此外他還寫了「Donnees nouvelles sur la composition de la flore de l'ile de Paques」(Journal de la Societe des Oceanistes 2:23-31(1998))。關於Claudio Cristino和其同事所作的考古調查結果可見下列論文:Christopher Stevenson和Claudio Cristino 合作發表的「Residential settlement history of the Rapa Nui coastal plain」(Journal of New World Archaeology 7:29-38(986));Daris Swindler、Andrea Drusini與Claudio Cristino共同發表的「Variation and frequency of three-rotted first molars in precontact Easter Island:anthropological significance」(Journal of the Polynesian Society 106:175-183(1997));以及Claudio Cristino與Patricia Vargas共同發表的「Ahu Tongariki, Easter Island:chronological and sociopolitical significance」(Rapa Nui Journal 13:67-69(1999))。

Christopher Stevenson寫的關於集約農業和石塊護根法的論文集有Archaeological Investigations on Easter Island;Maunga Tari:An Upland Agriculture Complex(Los Osos, Calif.:Easter Island Foundation, 1995);以及與Joan Wozniak、Sonia Haoa共合作發表的「Prehistoric agriculture production on Easter Island(Rapa Nui), Chile」(Antiquity 73:801-812(1999));與Thegn Ladefoged、Sonia Haoa合作發表的「Productive strategies in an uncertain environment:prehistoric agriculture on Easter Island」(Rapa Nui Journal 16:17-22(2002))。Christopher Stevenson寫的「Territorial pisions on Easter Island in the 16th century:evidence from the distribution of ceremonial architecture」被收錄於T.Ladefoged和M.Graves共同編輯的Pacific Landscapes(Los Osos, Calif.:Easter Island Foundation, 2002), pp.213-229,這篇論文重建了復活節島上11個傳統部落的地盤界線。

Dale Lightfoot的「Morphology and ecology of lithic-mulch agriculture」(Geographical Review 84:172-185(1994))和Carleton White等人發表的「Water conservation through an Anasazi gardening technique」(New Mexico Journal of Science 38:251-278(1998)),這兩篇論文列出證據表明世界其他地區也使用石塊護根法。Andreas Mieth與Hans-Rudolf Bork合作發表的「Diminution and degradation of environmental resources by prehistoric land use on Poike Peninsula, Easter Island(Rapa Nui)」(Rapa Nui Journal 17:34-41(2003))探討了珀伊克半島上濫伐森林及土壤侵蝕的情況。Karsten Haase等人發表的「The petrogenetic evolution of lavas from Easter Island and neighboring seamounts, near-ridge hotspot volcanoes in the S.E.Pacific」(Journal of Petrology 38:785-813(1997))對復活節島火山的形成年代和化學成分進行了分析。Erika Hagelberg等人發表的「DNA from ancient Easter Islanders」(Nature 369:25-26(1994))對12個復活節島民的骨骸做了DNA分析報告。James Brander和M.Scott Taylor共同發表的論文「The simple economics of Easter Island:a Ricardo-Malthus model of renewable resource use」(American Economic Review 38:119-138(1998))則是從經濟學的角度來分析復活節島資源過度開發的情形。