引言
1．San Angelo Standard-Times, May 27, 30, 31; June 2, 6, 1949; Steven Spencer, "Where Are We Now on Polio?" Saturday Evening Post, September 17, 1949, 26-27.
2．San Angelo Standard-Times, May 28, 1949.
3．Ibid.; also Ralph Chase, "A Circle of Wagons," West Texas Historical Association Yearbook, 1990, 98-111.
4．San Angelo Standard-Times, June 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 1949.
5．Ibid., June 4, 1949.
6．Ibid., August 7, 8, 1949.
7．Ibid., August 9, 14, 15, 1949.
8．Chase, "Circle of Wagons," 98.
9．Ibid.
10．U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Vital Statistics of the United States, 1952, volume 2, Mortality Data, 50-94.
11．Helman, Great Feuds in Modern Medicine, 140-41.
1
1．Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, 1-9; Sass, Polio's Legacy, 1-20; Smith, Patenting the Sun, 34.
2．Crawford, The Invisible Enemy, 6; Oldstone, Viruses, Plagues, and History, 3-23; Simmons, Doctors and Discoveries, 270-74.
3．Dorothy Horstmann, "The Poliomyelitis Story: A Scientific Hegira," Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 1985, 79-90; Frederick Robbins and Thomas Daniel, "A History of Poliomyelitis," in Polio, ed. T. Daniel, 5-22; Joseph L. Melnick, "Enteroviruses," in Virology (2nd ed.), ed. B. N. Fields, 1990, 558-64; Karlen, Man and Microbes, 149-54; Lauro S. Halstead, "Post-Polio Syndrome," Scientific American, April 1998, 42-47; Richard L. Bruno, The Polio Paradox, 2002, 30-37.
4．Paul, History of Poliomyelitis, 12.
5．Ibid., 17-18.
6．Charles S. Caverly, "Preliminary Report of an Epidemic of Paralytic Disease, Occurring in Vermont, in the Summer of 1894," in Infantile Paralysis In Vermont, 1894—1922, State Department of Public Health, Burlington, Vt., 1924.
7．Paul, History of Poliomyelitis, 88-97; Saul Benison, "The History of Polio Research in the United States: Appraisal and Lessons," in The Twentieth Century Sciences: Studies in the Biography of Ideas, ed. Gerald Holton, 1972, 313-14.
8．Paul, History of Poliomyelitis, 98-106; Crawford, The Invisible Enemy, 105-8.
9．Tomes, The Gospel of Germs, 30-32, 92-96.
10．Corner, History of the Rockefeller Institute, 1901-1953, 22-29.
11．Lester King, "Medical Education: The Decade of Massive Change," in American Medical Association, American Medicine Comes of Age, 1840-1920, 1984, 83-87; Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, 116-27; Ludmerer, Time to Heal, 3-25.
12．Chernow, Titan, 468.
13．Burnow, Organized Medicine in the Progressive Era, 11-13; Brown, Rockefeller Medicine Men, 108.
14．Corner, Rockefeller Institute, 30-31; Chernow, Titan, 417-18, 471.
15．Benison, "History of Polio Research," 312-14; De Kruif, The Sweeping Wind, 12-15.
16．J. T. Flexner, Maverick's Progress, 8; J. T. Flexner, An American Saga, 218-35; Bonner, Iconoclast, 32-34.
17．Corner, Rockefeller Institute, 59-61; Flexner, American Saga, 440.
18．Corner, Rockefeller Institute, 60-61; Chernow, Titan, 478; Wall, Andrew Carnegie, 832.
19．Caverly, "Anterior Polio in Vermont in the Year 1910," in Infantile Paralysis in Vermont, 39; California State Board of Health, "Poliomyelitis," Bulletin for Health Officials, 1912; Robert Lovett, "The Occurrence of Infantile Paralysis in Massachusetts in 1910," Monthly Bulletin of the Massachusetts State Board of Health for 1911; F. G. Boudreau, "Acute Poliomyelitis with Special Reference to the Disease in Ohio," Monthly Bulletin, Ohio State Board of Health, January, February, March 1914.
20．Saul Benison, "The Enigma of Poliomyelitis: 1910," in Freedom and Reform: Essays in Honor of Henry Steele Commager, ed. Harold Hyman, 1967, 251-52.
21．Dorothy Horstmann oral interview, April 26, 1990, in Daniel Wilson File, Dorothy Horstmann Papers, Yale University Archives.
22．Williams, Virus Hunters, 136.
23．《紐約時報》，1911年3月9日。弗萊克斯納關於鼻腔傳播途徑的「發現」發表在他與Paul A. Lewis合著的論文《猴子急性脊髓灰質炎的傳播》（The Transmission of Acute Poliomyelitis to Monkeys，Journal of the American Medical Association，1909年11月13日及12月4日）中。他沒有直接說鼻腔是脊髓灰質炎唯一的傳播途徑，雖然他顯然是這麼認為的。
24．Tom Rivers, 192-93.
25．Horstmann, "Poliomyelitis Story," 81-82; Rogers, Dirt and Disease, 28.
26．Peter Olitsky to Albert Sabin, undated, 1936, File 6, Peter Olitsky Papers, American Philosophical Society.研究所內部關於《阿羅史密斯》的爭議，詳見Richard Lingman, Sinclair Lewis, 2002, 206-9; Mark Schorer, Sinclair Lewis: An American Life, 1961, 366-67, 410-20; Charles Rosenberg, "Martin Arrowsmith, The Scientist as Hero," American Quarterly, Fall 1963, 447-58.在撰寫《阿羅史密斯》的過程中，辛克萊·劉易斯得到了保羅·德克呂夫的協助；當時，這位聰慧而略有怪癖的研究者兼科學作家，剛剛因弗萊克斯納施加的壓力而從洛克菲勒研究所離職。不出所料，這本書在研究所裡引發了騷動。「大家都急著想看《阿羅史密斯》把研究所裡的人寫成了什麼樣，這很正常，」一位科學家朋友寫信告訴弗萊克斯納，並補充說，「這本書令人不安，因為它對科學和科研的描述並不真實……怎麼說呢，寫得頗為噁心。」亞伯拉罕·弗萊克斯納（Abraham Flexner）表示，這本書「扭曲」了他哥哥的形象。見Peyton Rous to Simon Flexner, Spring 1925, Collection O, Peyton Rous File, 4; Abraham Flexner to Simon Flexner, June 13, 1925, Collection 1, Abraham Flexner File; both in Simon Flexner Papers, Rockefeller Institute.德克呂夫在脊髓灰質炎研究工作中扮演的角色，見P54-59。
27．關於1916年大流行的詳細情況請見：Gould, A Summer Plague, 3-28; Rogers, Dirt and Disease, 30-71.
28．David Rosner, "Introduction," 7-15, and Gretchen Condran, "Changing Patterns of Epidemic Disease in New York City," 30-37, both in Hives of Sickness, ed. D. Rosner.
29．Alan Kraut, "Plagues and Prejudice: Nativism's Construction of Disease in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century New York City," 71-75, in Rosner, Hives of Sickness; Markel, Quarantine, 15-39.
30．Rosner, "Introduction," 14-15.
31．Kraut, Silent Travelers, 109; New York Times, July 8, 1916.
32．Naomi Rogers, "Dirt, Flies and Immigrants: Explaining the Epidemiology of Poliomyelitis, 1900—1916," in Sickness and Health in America, ed. Judith Walter and Ronald Numbers, 1997, 543-54.
33．New York Times, July 26, 1916; Rogers, Dirt and Disease, 54.
34．New York Times, July 14, 1916.
35．Rogers, Dirt and Disease, 53.
36．Rogers, "Dirt, Flies, and Immigrants," 543.
37．Ibid., 544.
2
1．Goldberg, The Making of Franklin D. Roosevelt, 26-27; Cook, Eleanor Roosevelt, 1884-1933, 267-71, 305-6; New York Times, July 23, 1921.
2．Gallagher, FDR's Splendid Deception, 9.
3．Davis, FDR: The Beckoning of Destiny, 647-51; Anna Roosevelt, "How Polio Helped F.D.R.," The Woman with Woman's Digest, July 1949, 54.
4．Eleanor Roosevelt, This Is My Story, 330; Cook, Eleanor Roosevelt, 308; Cohn, Four Billion Dimes, 12.
5．Davis, FDR, 651.
6．在一封寫給詹姆斯·「羅西」·羅斯福（James 「Rosy」 Roosevelt）的長信裡，埃莉諾·羅斯福詳細描述了羅斯福發病早期的情況：脊髓灰質炎如何發作，醫生如何上門診療，全家的反應，羅斯福的精神狀態。見Eleanor Roosevelt to "Rosy," August 14, 1921, "Family and Personal Correspondence," 1894-1957, Box 2, "Condolence Letters After FDR's Polio Attack," Eleanor Roosevelt Papers, FDR Library.
7．Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 589; Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, 337-38; R. W. Lovett, The Treatment of Infantile Paralysis, 1916.
8．Goldberg, Making of FDR, 44.
9．雖然羅斯福並未過於責怪基恩醫生的診療讓他的情況惡化，但回想起來的時候，他也同意基恩的療法是錯誤的。「對於脊髓灰質炎，最好的治療方法是，」他寫信告訴一位病友，「徹底的休息靜養，直至肌肉酸痛徹底消退。在此之前，完全不要按摩。等到肌肉不再酸痛以後，再進行輕柔的按摩和鍛煉，以恢復肌肉功能。」見FDR to G. S. Barrows, October 31, 1921, "Family, Business, Personal," Box 23, Subject File: Infantile Paralysis, Franklin Delano Roosevelt Papers, FDR Library.
10．Cook, Eleanor Roosevelt, 308-10; Anna Roosevelt, "How Polio Helped F.D.R.," 54.
11．Goldberg, Making of FDR, 43.
12．Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 187-88, 203, 368-69, 407-10.
13．《紐約時報》2003年3月4日發表的Abigail Zuger作品《「你會凍死的！」這僅僅是老太太嚇唬人的口頭禪嗎？》（「You'll Catch Your Death！」An Old Wives' Tale？）簡要介紹了關於寒冷的最新醫學理論；Ward,A First-Class Temperament，595。在罹患脊髓灰質炎的21年前，羅斯福做了扁桃體摘除術，後來一位醫生猜測，這次手術可能對他後來患病有所影響。研究者相信，夏天（或者說脊髓灰質炎流行季）不宜進行扁桃體摘除術，因為手術過程中，神經末梢可能接觸到脊髓灰質炎病毒。但沒有證據表明，做過扁桃體摘除術的人更容易罹患脊髓灰質炎。見Eye, Ear, Nose and Throat Monthly，1957年6月刊，P348-49。
14．See Armond Goldman et al., "What Was the Cause of Franklin Delano Roosevelt's Paralytic Illness?" Journal of Medical Biography, 2003, 232-40; also Associated Press wire story, November 3, 2003.
15．Hoy, Chasing Dirt, 3-27; Tomes, The Gospel of Germs, 1-20; Vinikas, Soft Soap, Hard Sell, ix-xix.
16．Ziporyn, Disease in the Popular American Press, 9-14; Tomes, Gospel of Germs, 26-47; Brandt, No Magic Bullet; Walzer, Typhoid Mary.
17．Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine, 180-97; Andrew McClary, "Germs Are Everywhere: The Germ Threat as Seen in Magazine Articles, 1890-1920," Journal of American Culture, Spring 1980, 38-39.
18．McClary, "Germs Are Everywhere," 37.
19．Tomes, The Gospel of Germs, 10.
20．Ibid., 249-50.
21．Vinikas, Soft Soap, Hard Sell, 28-44.
22．Ibid., pp. 43, 79-94; Martin, Flexible Bodies, 23-33.
23．New York Times, September 16, 1921; Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 600-603.
24．Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 595.
25．Gallagher, FDR's Splendid Deception, 28-33.
26．Lily Norton to Helen Whidden, November 14, 1921, Eleanor and Franklin Roosevelt, Small Collections, "Reminiscences by Contemporaries," Subject File: Lily Norton, Franklin Delano Roosevelt Papers, FDR Library.
27．Dumas Malone, Jefferson and the Rights of Man, 1951, 267; Allan Nevins, Grover Cleveland: A Study in Courage, 1932, 530-33; Edwin Weinstein, Woodrow Wilson: A Medical and Psychological Biography, 1981, 348-70; John Morton Cooper, Jr., The Warrior and the Priest, 1983, 335-42.
28．Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 781 83; Lewis L. Gould, The Modern American Presidency, 2003, 82-83.
29．Gallagher, FDR's Splendid Deception, xiii-xiv.
30．Franklin Roosevelt to Thomas C. Whitlock, March 23, 1923, Box 23, "Family, Business, Personal," Subject File: Infantile Paralysis, Franklin Delano Roosevelt Papers, FDR Library.
31．Goldberg, Making of FDR, 80; Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 657.
32．Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story, 40-42; Dorothy Ducas, "Unto the Least of These ... The Story of Basil O'Connor," Sigma Phi Epsilon Journal, February 1941; Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt: The Ordeal, 119-20, 143.
33．Smith, Patenting the Sun, 54-55; Goldberg, Making of FDR, 81.
34．"George Foster Peabody," and "The Peabody Awards," in www.peabody.uga.edu; "George Foster Peabody," Dictionary of American Biography, 1958, 520-21. Each year, in his honor, the University of Georgia hands out the internationally known George Foster Peabody Awards for excellence in broadcasting and journalism.
35．Lippman, The Squire of Warm Spring, 32-34.
36．Nathaniel Altman, "Hot Springs and Mineral Spas in North America," in Healing Springs: The Ultimate Guide to Taking the Waters, ed. N. Altman; Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 645. 「過去6周裡，」羅斯福寫信告訴自己的醫生，「我每週游三次泳——開始是在阿斯特家的泳池裡，後來是在我自己家的池塘裡。我的腿在水裡行動自如，我不需要任何東西的輔助就能浮起來。事實上，我認為我的膝蓋和雙腳在不斷好轉。」 Franklin Roosevelt to Dr. George Draper, August 10, 1922, Box 23, "Family, Business, Personal," Subject File: Infantile Paralysis, Franklin Delano Roosevelt Papers, FDR Library.
37．Lippman, The Squire of Warm Springs, 31-43; Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story, 3-16; Roosevelt Warm Springs Institute for Rehabilitation, "A Brief History of the Springs," https://www.rooseveltrehab.org/history.htm.
38．Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story, 13-14.
39．Roosevelt, This I Remember, 26-27.
40．Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story, 25.
41．Ibid., 28; Lippman, The Squire of Warm Springs, 33.
42．Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story, 28; Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 707; Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt: The Ordeal, 193.
43．Davis, FDR: The Beckoning of Destiny, 767-68.
44．Cleburne Gregory, "Franklin Roosevelt Will Swim to Health," Atlanta Journal, October 26, 1924.
45．Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story, 76-78; Noel Burtenshaw, "Warm Springs and Its Magic Waters," Georgia Bulletin, February 4, 1982.
46．Eleanor Roosevelt to Marion Dickerman, quoted in Davis, Invincible Summer, 61.
47．Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 728. For a full accounting of the sale, complete with legal documents, see Roosevelt, This I Remember, Appendix Ⅱ.
48．Roosevelt Warm Springs Institute for Rehabilitation, "Our History ... 75 Years of Commitment to Service," https://www.rooseveltrehab.org/history.htm; Gallagher, FDR's Splendid Deception, 45.
49．Jean Schauble, "Roosevelt and Warm Springs," Columbia Library Columns, February 1973, 3-9; Dr. George Draper to Franklin Roosevelt, July 25, 1925; Roosevelt to Draper, July 27, 1925, Box 23, Family, Business, Personal," Subject File: Infantile Paralysis," Franklin Delano Roosevelt Papers, FDR Library.
50．Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story, 31-117; Gallagher, FDR's Splendid Deception, 56.
51．Lippman, The Squire of Warm Springs, 50; Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 709. 雖然富蘭克林和埃莉諾的關係仍然非常密切，他們也經常談論政治和家庭事務，但是到1924年，他們共度的時間已經大幅減少。「他們的生活走向了不同的方向。」埃莉諾的傳記作者Blanche Wiesen Cook寫道，「他們的興趣不同，喜歡打交道的人也不一樣。」毫無疑問，羅斯福太太希望盡量減少在沃姆斯普林斯停留的時間；她不在的時候，羅斯福忠誠的秘書米西·萊漢德就代替她履行女主人和紅顏知己的職責。見Cook, Eleanor Roosevelt, 314-17.
52．Quoted in Smith, Patenting the Sun, 56.
53．David Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929—1945, 1999, 94-97; Mark H. Leff, "Franklin Roosevelt," in The Reader's Companion to the American Presidency, ed. Alan Brinkley and David Dyer, 2000, 369-71; Cook, Eleanor Roosevelt, 302-37.
54．羅斯福退回了這張支票，並告訴拉斯科布，也許將來我會需要你的慷慨幫助。事情果然如此。接下來的那些年裡，拉斯科布向沃姆斯普林斯基金會捐助了10萬美元以上的善款，成為基金會最大的捐助者之一。見Friedel, Franklin D. Roosevelt, 255.
55．Gallagher, FDR's Splendid Deception, 72-74; Freidel, FDR: The Ordeal, 257-69.
56．Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 794.
3
1．Gould, Grand Old Party: A History of the Republicans, 256; Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 91-92; McElvaine, The Great Depression, 52.
2．Black, Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion of Freedom, 211.
3．Gallagher, FDR's Splendid Deception, 81-82.
4．Ibid., 87.
5．Daniel J. Wilson, "A Crippling Fear: Experiencing Polio in the Era of FDR," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 1998, 490.一位歷史學家特別強調說，羅斯福小心地混淆了「疾病」和「殘疾」之間的關鍵區別。見John Duffy, "Franklin Roosevelt: Ambiguous Symbol for Disabled Americans," Midwest Quarterly, Autumn 1987, 113-35.
6．See Amy Fairchild, "The Polio Narratives: Dialogues with FDR," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 2001, 488-534.
7．New York Journal-American, January 17, 19, 20, 21, 1938.
8．Wilson, "A Crippling Fear," 487-88.
9．Ibid., 483-84.
10．Ibid., 495; also Daniel J. Wilson, "Crippled Manhood: Infantile Paralysis and the Construction of Masculinity," Medical Humanities Review, Fall 1998, 9-27.
11．Alice Heaton, "A Friend-and Partner," Good Housekeeping, July 1953, 209.
12．David Sills, The Volunteers, 42.
13．Cutlip, The Unseen Power, 531-52; "Carl Byoir: A Retrospective," Museum of Public Relations, 2002.
14．Cutlip, Fund Raising in the United States, 361; Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story, 229-31. For the career of Henry Doherty, see Rose, Cities of Heat and Light.
15．"Letter Number One to Town Publishers," December 13, 1933, in Basil O'Connor Vertical File, FDR Presidential Library, Hyde Park, New York.這些信是拜奧爾寫的，但信件署名是「全國主席亨利·多爾蒂」。
16．Letter Number Two, December 22, 1933; Henry Doherty, National Chairman, to His Honor, The Mayor, January 5, 1934, ibid.
17．Cohn, Four Billion Dimes, 43; Dorothy Ducas, "Crusader-By-Accident: The Biography of Basil O'Connor," unpublished manuscript in Basil O'Connor File, March of Dimes Archives, White Plains, N.Y. (hereafter cited as MDA).
18．Byoir, "Organizing Suggestions," in Basil O'Connor Vertical File, FDR Presidential Library; Cutlip, Fund Raising in the United States, 366; for Wiley Post, see B. Sterling and F. Sterling, Forgotten Eagle: Wiley Post.
19．"Whole City Joins in Tribute To President on 52nd Birthday: New York Scene of 40 of 6,000 Balls to Benefit Warm Springs," New York Times, January 31, 1934; press release, "Birthday Ball for the President," Basil O'Connor Vertical File, FDR Library.
20．Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story, 229-31; Cutlip, The Unseen Power, 558-59.
21．Carter, The Gentle Legions, 77; "Christmas Seals Celebrates 90 Years of Holiday Giving and Tradition," American Lung Association Web site.
22．Cutlip, Fund Raising in the United States, 129; Carter, Gentle Legions, 38-62.
23．Cutlip, Fund Raising in the United States, 242-91.
24．Heaton, "A Friend-and Partner," 209-10; Cohn, Four Billion Dimes, 39.
25．Cutlip, Fund Raising in the United States, 367-68.
26．Cohn, Four Billion Dimes, 44.
27．New York World-Telegram and Sun, January 27, 1938; New York Post, January 25, 1938. 羅斯福的清洗行動非常失敗，幾乎所有他打算幹掉的人都安然無恙。國會議員約翰·J.奧康納是坦慕尼協會的忠實成員，他的脾氣比較暴躁，用《時代週刊》的話來說，「應該大受歡迎的國會裡最不受人待見的議員之一」。約翰是國會規則委員會主席，也是巴塞爾·奧康納的哥哥。1938年，他也是羅斯福想幹掉的人之一，這實在是很諷刺。見James Patterson, Congressional Conservatism and the New Deal, 1967, 53, 278-87.
28．"Cripples' Money: Who Gets the Proceeds of the Presidential Birthday Balls?" 48 pp. Copy in author's possession; Chicago Tribune, December 21, 1938.
29．National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, "Organization Chart," MDA; Cohn, Four Billion Dimes, p. 57.
30．Goldman, Banjo Eyes, 194-96; The Eddie Cantor Appreciation Society, "The Eddie Cantor Story," https://www.eddiecantor.com.
31．Goldman, Banjo Eyes, xiii.
32．Cutlip, Fund Raising in the United States, 385.
33．Ibid.
34．Ibid. Also Ira T. Smith, "Dear Mr. President ...": The Story of Fifty Years in the White House Mail Room, 1949, 157-61.
35．Smith, "Dear Mr. President ...," 159.
36．Ed Reiter, "Franklin D. Roosevelt: The Man on the Marching Dime," June 28, 1999, Professional Coin Grading Service Web site.國會保守黨人試圖把一角硬幣上的羅斯福換成羅納德·裡根的最新努力遭到強烈抵制。南希·裡根反對這個主意，她說：「我並不支持這一提案，而且我能肯定，羅尼也不會支持。」見Robert Scheer's column in the Los Angeles Times, December 13, 2003; and USA Today, December 5, 2003.
37．Simmons, Doctors and Discoveries, 401-4; Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, 305; Benison, Tom Rivers, 182.
38．Paul de Kruif, "De Kruif Emphasizes Mystery of Infantile Paralysis," New York World-Telegram & Sun, January 24, 1948; Benison, Tom Rivers, 183-84.
39．Maurice Brodie and William H. Park, "Active Immunization Against Poliomyelitis," Journal of the American Medical Association, October 5, 1935, 1089-93.
40．"Specter of Paralysis Stalks Carolina," Literary Digest, July 1935.
41．Benison, Tom Rivers, 185.
42．H. V. Wyatt, "Provocation Poliomyelitis: Neglected Clinical Observations from 1914—1950," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 1981, 550-55; Paul, History of Poliomyelitis, 255-60.
43．Lederer, Subjected to Science, 107; Benison, Tom Rivers, 189.
44．"William Hallock Park," Medical Violet (NYU Medical School yearbook), 1939, 43, 163; Altman, Who Goes First, 126-28; Hooper, The River, 198; Paul, History of Poliomyelitis, 254-61, 270-72. The notice of Brodie's death can be found in the Canadian Medical Association Journal, 1939, 632.
45．德克呂夫對帕克-布羅迪慘敗的解釋見President's Birthday Ball Commission for Infantile Paralysis Research, "Progress Report," March 28, 1937, 11, FDR Presidential Library; Carter, Breakthrough, 24-25.
46．"Biographical Sketch of Thomas M. Rivers, M.D., Thomas Rivers File, MDA.
47．Ibid. Also Benison, Tom Rivers, 67-225; Smith, Patenting the Sun, 147-48.
48．Benison, Tom Rivers, 232.
49．Howard Howe to David Bodian, January 24, 1942, in Folder 1 (unprocessed), David Bodian Papers, Chesney Medical Archives, Johns Hopkins Medical School.
4
1．Hawkins, The Man in the Iron Lung, 67.
2．Ibid., 66-70.
3．一流醫學史家戴維·羅思曼（David Rothman）在最近的一篇文章中寫道，鐵肺的出現「讓美國人有機會表達、吸收接下來數十年裡影響全國的價值觀……鐵肺的發明，讓我們建立了新的倫理觀：每個人都有權享用拯救生命的技術，哪怕它帶來的益處十分微小，需要付出的代價非常沉重，那也是值得的。」
他補充說，正是從那時候起，醫生開始用鐵肺幫助那些生還機會渺茫的患者。結果，病人的死亡率非常高，所以鐵肺既被視為救命法寶，又被看作奪命陷阱，它「堅固耐用、擁有強大的力量」，同時又「令人恐懼和反感」。見Rothman, "The Iron Lung and Democratic Medicine," in Beginnings Count: The Technological Imperative in American Health Care, ed. D. Rothman, 1997, 42-66.
4．"Life in a Respirator," Time, June 14, 1937, 32; "Iron Lung: Metal Prison for a Traveling Paralysis Patient," Newsweek, June 12, 1937, 21.
5．Ibid.
6．"Snite at Lourdes," Time, June 12, 1939; 55.
7．Dorothy Corson, "Frederick Snite: The Man in the Iron Lung, a Legend at Notre Dame," in Notre Dame Legends and Lore, https://www.nd.edu.
8．"Married," Newsweek, August 21, 1939, 9; "The Man in the Iron Lung," Time, November 18, 1946, 68-69; "A Man Without Worries," Time, November 22, 1954, 59-60; Hawkins, Man in the Iron Lung, 243.
9．Hawkins, The Man in the Iron Lung, 174; Howard Markel, "The Genesis of the Iron Lung," Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine, 1994, 1179.
10．Sills, The Volunteers, 116-48.
11．Ibid., 134.
12．Gould, A Summer Plague, 79-80.
13．"Remarks of Franklin D. Roosevelt at Tuskegee Institute, March 30, 1939"; "Statement at the Dedication of the Infantile Paralysis Unit at Tuskegee in Alabama, January 15, 1941"; in The American Presidency Project: Public Papers of the President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu.
14．Gould, A Summer Plague, 81-83; McMurry, George Washington Carver, 252-55; "World's Great Men of Color: George Washington Carver," in https://www.marcusgarvey.com.
15．National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, The Tuskegee Institute Infantile Paralysis Center, n.d., 10 pp.塔斯基吉在訓練護士照顧殘疾者的工作中扮演的角色，見Kimberly Carter, "Trumpets of Attack: Collaborative Efforts Between Nursing and Philanthropies to Care for the Child Crippled with Polio, 1930 to 1959," Public Health Nursing, July-August 2001.
16．Harry Weaver to Thomas Francis, December 6, 1946, "Weaver Correspondence," Box 51, Thomas Francis Papers, Bentley Library, University of Michigan.
17．關於1916年大流行時涉及的種族問題，見Gould, A Summer Plague, 8；1946年的調查，見「The Incidence of Poliomyelitis and Its Crippling Effects as Recorded in Family Surveys,」 Public Health Reports, March 8, 1946, 345-46.
18．Francis to Weaver, December 10, 1946, "Weaver Correspondence," Box 51, Thomas Francis Papers, Bentley Library, University of Michigan; Weaver to Francis, February 6, 1947, "Weaver Correspondence," Box 51, Thomas Francis Papers, Bentley Library, University of Michigan.
19．"Fund-Raising," Box 1, Campaign Materials, 1939, 1944, March of Dimes Archives, White Plains, N.Y. (hereafter cited as MDA); Smith, Patenting the Sun, 83.
20．Franklin Roosevelt to Basil O'Connor, November 10, 1942, in Basil O'Connor File, MDA.
21．"Fund-Raising," Box 1, 1944, 1945, ibid.
22．See especially "Motion Picture Campaign Book," and "Motion Picture Industries Campaign," ibid.
23．National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, "Facts and Figures About Infantile Paralysis," Publication No. 59, 1947; Sills, The Volunteers, 128-30.
24．Infantile Paralysis, Life, July 31, 1944, 25-28.
25．Sink, The Grit Behind the Miracle, 115-19, 139-42.
26．Ibid., 53-61.
27．Ibid., 68.
28．Ibid., 35-36, 41; "Infantile Paralysis," Life, July 31, 1944, 25-28.
29．National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, "The Miracle of Hickory," n.d., MDA; Rose, Images of America, 24-25.
30．Greensboro Daily News, August 9, 1944, quoted in Sink, The Grit Behind the Miracle, 69-70.
31．Ibid.
32．Ibid., 117.
33．Ibid., 121, 149.
34．Elizabeth Kenny, And They Shall Walk, 23; Robert Yoder, "Healer from the Outback," Saturday Evening Post, January 17, 1942, 18-19, 68.
35．Victor Cohn, Sister Kenny, 38-50.
36．Sonda Oppewal, "Sister Kenny, an Australian Nurse, and Treatment of Poliomyelitis Victims," Image: the Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 1997, 83-87; Naomi Rogers, "Sister Kenny Goes to Washington: Polio, Populism, and Medical Politics in Postwar America," in Robert Johnston, The Politics of Healing, 2004, 102-3.
37．Walter I. Galland, "The Post-Paralytic Treatment of Poliomyelitis from the Orthopedic Standpoint," reprinted in Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, September 1969, 525-30; Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, 338-40.
38．"Verdict on Sister Kenny," Newsweek, June 26, 1944, 77-78; Gould, A Summer Plague, 96, 108; Margaret Denton, "Further Comments on the Elizabeth Kenny Controversy," Australian Historical Studies, 2000, 157.
39．Cohn, Sister Kenny, 127; Benison, Tom Rivers, 282.由於肯尼護士帶來了脊髓灰質炎患者家屬和醫生的推薦信，所以裡弗斯建議奧康納不要徹底拒絕肯尼護士，最好找幾位「不帶偏見、願意詳細考察（她的說法）」的「有道德感的醫生」。Rivers to O'Connor, March 4, 1941, Basil O'Connor File, Thomas Rivers Papers, American Philosophical Society.
40．Gould, A Summer Plague, 96; Marvin Kline (former mayor of Minneapolis), "The Most Unforgettable Character I've Met," Reader's Digest, August 1959, 205.
41．Cohn, Sister Kenny, 83-84.
42．Kline, "Unforgettable Character," 205; Miland E. Knapp, M.D., "The Contribution of Sister Elizabeth Kenny to the Treatment of Poliomyelitis," Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, August 1955, 510-17.
43．Cohn, Sister Kenny, 147.
44．Yoder, "Healer from the Outback"; Lois Miller, "Sister Kenny vs. Infantile Paralysis," Reader's Digest, December 1941, 1-6; Lois Miller, "Sister Kenny vs. the Medical Old Guard," Reader's Digest, October 1944, 65-71; Cohn, Sister Kenny, 192-93; "Movie of the Week: Sister Kenny" and "A Doctor Comments on 『Sister Kenny,'" Life, September 16, 1946, 21.
45．Cohn, Sister Kenny, 172.
46．Ibid., 173, 213
47．Ibid., 151 52; "Verdict on Sister Kenny," Newsweek, June 26, 1944, 76 78.
48．Cohn, Sister Kenny, 206 7.
49．Ibid., 234.
5
1．Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story, 301.
2．Fund Raising Records, Series 7, 1944, "Motion Picture Campaign Book," March of Dimes Archives, White Plains, N.Y. (hereafter cited as MDA).
3．1946, Motion Picture Industry Campaign, MDA.
4．Fund Raising Records, Series 8, United Funds, "Memoranda and Reports, NFIP," MDA.
5．Ibid.
6．Fund Raising Records, Series 7, Policy and Procedures, "History and Responsibilities of the Fund Raising Department, NFIP, 1943 1955," MDA.
7．Publications Collection, Series 2, Periodicals; Medical Programs Documents, Series 15, Box 15, Public Relations Department, 1937—1949; and Science Writers, 1946—1964, MDA.
8．Seavey, Smith, and Wagner, A Paralyzing Fear, 74.
9．Fund Raising Records, Series 4, Poster Children, "Donald Anderson-1946 March of Dimes Poster Boy," MDA.
10．Memo: Joe Kievit to Trudy Whitman, December 15, 1949; "Donald Anderson- 1946 March of Dimes Poster Boy," MDA.
11．"Report on Donald Anderson," n.d., MDA.
12．Memo: Felix Montes to Trudy Whitman, December 3, 1948, MDA.
13．後來的海報兒童拍攝的照片一般都拄著枴杖或是戴著腿部支架，或者二者兼有。但基金會傳達的信息一直是樂觀的，微笑的孩子正在康復。事實上，到20世紀40年代末，一毛錢進行曲還會隨海報分發題為「看，我又能走路了」、「因為有你，我才能行走」的小冊子。見「Publications Collection: Series 2—Periodicals, Series 3—Poliomyelitis,」 MDA.
14．Black, In the Shadow of Polio, 39-42; Mee, A Nearly Normal Life, 3-13.
15．Black, In the Shadow of Polio, 40.
16．Davis, Passage Through Crisis, 37.
17．Black, In the Shadow of Polio, 47.
18．Spock, The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care, 419-20.
19．"Polio Panic," Time, August 5, 1946, 55-56; "The Polio Scourge," Newsweek, August 19, 1946, 22-24.
20．Fund Raising Records, Series 8, United Funds, "Memoranda and Reports," MDA.
21．Sills, The Volunteers; Nancy Weiss, "Mother: The Invention of Necessity: Dr. Benjamin Spock's Baby and Child Care," American Quarterly, Winter 1977, 519-46.
22．Annual Programs for "Fashion Show"; Miss Whitelaw to Miss Kay, January 11, 1945; in Fund Raising Records, Series 3: Fashion Show, MDA.
23．"Fashion Show, Program Scripts," MDA.
24．John Clifford to Elaine Whitelaw, November 27, 1946, MDA.
25．See 1949, "Jewel Tour" (The Court of Jewels; Harry Winston Collection), MDA.
26．Fund Raising Records, Report: 1950, "Mothers' March on Polio, Maricopa Chapter, NFIP," MDA; "March of Dimes Promotional Film," MDA; Sills, The Volunteers, 158-59.
27．"Chronological Outline of Mothers' March," MDA; also Phoenix Gazette, January 2, 1950; Arizona Republic, January 17, 1950.
28．"Foreword" of "Chronological Outline of Mothers' March," MDA.
29．"March of Dimes Promotional Film," MDA
30．Mothers' March Folder (including "Plan Book" and "Rural Supplement to Plan Book"), in Series 4, Institutional History, Box 8, MDA.
31．Sills, The Volunteers, 160.
32．Ibid., 184-85.
33．Ibid., 158; Joanne Meyerowitz, "Beyond the Feminine Mystique: A Reassesment of Postwar Mass Culture, 1946—1958," in Meyerowitz, Not June Cleaver, 229-62.
34．Fund Raising Records, "History and Responsibility of the Fund Raising Department," MDA.
35．Allan Brandt and Martha Gardner, "The Golden Age of Medicine?" in Cooper and Pickstone, Medicine in the Twentieth Century, 21-37; Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 40-41; Tomes, The Gospel of Germs, 254.
36．Simmons, Doctors and Discoveries, 256-60; Brandt and Gardner, "Golden Age of Medicine?" 26.
37．National Vital Statistics Reports, vol. 51. no. 3, December 19, 2002, 29; David Cutler and Ellen Meara, "Changes in the Age Distribution of Mortality Over the 20th Century," National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 8556, October 2001.
6
1．See "Grant to National Foundation, 1941—42," and draft of article on Francis by Paul Ellis, January 7, 1947; both in National Foundation File, Box 51, Thomas Francis Papers, Bentley Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Francis Papers).
2．Thomas Francis to Hart Van Riper, August 28, 1947, "Van Riper Correspondence," Box 51, Francis Papers.
3．See David Bodian, "Poliomyelitis and the Sources of Useful Knowledge," Johns Hopkins Medical Journal, 1976, 131.
4．薩賓關於此類事件的通信記錄之一，可參見Correspondence 1935—39, Box 3; Correspondence, 1946—47, Box 4; General Correspondence, 1950, Box 4: General Correspondence, 1953, Box 5; Albert Sabin Papers, University of Cincinnati Medical School (hereafter cited as Sabin Papers, UC). For Peter Olitsky, see Correspondence with Public, Peter Olitsky Papers, Archives of the Rockefeller Institute, Sleepy Hollow, New York (hereafter cited as Olitsky Papers). Also Dr. J. Plesch to Dr. Hart Van Riper, August 26, 1946, "Van Riper Correspondence," Box 51, Francis Papers; Albert Sabin to George Lyon, December 4, 1940; Sabin in "Science Service," June 6, 1940; "Mothers' Milk Has Chemicals to Kill Viruses," New York Herald-Tribune, May 29, 1951.
根據國家基金會的記錄，對於人感染脊髓灰質炎的途徑，最常見的錯誤觀點包括：用被污染的水沐浴、吃了脊髓灰質炎病毒曾經停留過的農作物、喝了太多的「甜飲料」（尤其是可口可樂，美國南部有很多人相信這個流言）。"Sources of Incorrect Information Which Have Recent Wide Circulation," Medical Program, Box 14, March of Dimes Archives, White Plains, N.Y. (hereafter cited as MDA).
5．Jonas Salk to W. S. McEllroy, December 9, 1947, Box 4, Folder 7, Jonas Salk Papers, Mandeville Special Collections, University of California, San Diego (hereafter cited as Salk Papers); W. H. Bradley, "Meteorological Conditions in Relation to Poliomyelitis in England and Wales, 1947—1952," Monthly Bulletin of the Ministry of Health, January 1953, 2-14.
6．"Resumes of Grantee's Progress Reports," Box 9, Medical Program, 1944; Box 12, Medical Program "Chemical Research," 1948; Box 15, Medical Program, "Research Program," 1951; all in MDA. Also "Polio Snake Venom" file, in Newsweek Morgue, Center for American History, University of Texas, Austin.
7．Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, 412-13; Aaron Klein, Trial by Fury, 45-46.
8．Carter, Breakthrough, 57.
9．Bodian, "Poliomyelitis and the Source of Useful Knowledge," 131.
10．20世紀40年代，國家基金會資助了一些項目，希望通過「沖洗」脊髓灰質炎患者的脊液，找到對抗這種疾病的化學方法。見Berg, Polio and Its Problems, 1947 (ch. 7, "A Pill for Polio,"), 60-77.
11．Dowling, Fighting Infection, 212-13; Robert Coughlin, Tracking the Killer, Life, February 22, 1954, 121-25; Williams, Virus Hunters, 251-69.
12．Lee Salk, My Father, My Son, 10.
13．Interview with Jonas Salk, May 16, 1991, in "Hall of Science and Exploration," www.achievement.org; author's interview with Darrell Salk, February 19, 2003.
14．Ibid.
15．"New Townsend Harris High Keeps Old Goals," New York Times, June 10, 1985; "Our History," Townsend Harris Online; Traub, City on a Hill, 32.
16．S. Willis Rudy, The College of the City of New York: A History, 1949, 294.
17．Traub, City On A Hill, 9, 34; CCNY Alumni Association, "Facts on City College" and "City's Nobel Laureates of the Twentieth Century," in www.alumniassociationccny.org.
18．Jonas Salk college transcript, Jonas Salk File, CCNY, Division of Archives and Special Collections, Morris Raphael Cohen Library.
19．Microcosm 1934 (CCNY Student Yearbook), 60-63; Howe, A Margin of Hope, 61-89.
20．Microcosm 1934, 120.
21．Interview with Jonas Salk, May 16, 1991.
22．Alan Dumont and Claude Heaton, The First One Hundred and Twenty-Five Years of the New York University School of Medicine, 1966, 3-40; Thomas Francis Jones, New York University: 1832—1932, 1933, 281-304.
23．Gerard Burrow, A History of Yale's School of Medicine, 2002, 107, 143-44.
24．"New York University College of Medicine, Schedule of Exercises" (1935—1936, 1936—1937, 1937—1938, 1938—1939); "Third Year Class Section Lists" (1937—1938); "Fourth Year Class Section Lists" (1938—1939), NYU Medical School Archives.
25．The Medical Violet 1939 (NYU School of Medicine Student Yearbook), 93.
26．Author's interview with Darrell Salk, February 19, 2003.
27．Carter, Breakthrough, 37.
28．Ibid., 41.
29．Author's interview with Darrell Salk, February 19, 2003.
30．Federal Bureau of Investigation, "Subject: Jonas Salk," File 161-22356.
31．Jonas Salk to Thomas Francis, September 20, 1941, Jonas Salk File, Francis Papers; John R. Paul, "Thomas Francis Jr.," Biographical Memoirs, 1974, 57-91.
32．Thomas Francis to Jonas Salk, December 18, 1841, Jonas Salk File, Francis Papers.索爾克沒能進入洛克菲勒研究所，最大的阻礙來自首席病毒學家托馬斯·裡弗斯。眾所周知，裡弗斯討厭閃族，他還否決了研究所為阿爾伯特·薩賓提供永久職位的提案；不過後來，在索爾克研發脊髓灰質炎疫苗的過程中，裡弗斯將扮演關鍵角色。
33．Thomas Francis to Francis Blake, Chairman, National Research Council, January 17, 1942, Jonas Salk File, Francis Papers.弗朗西斯和Francis Blake是老朋友。
34．Col. S. J. Kopetzsky to Jonas Salk, March 13, 1942, Box 5, Salk Papers.
35．Thomas Francis to Selective Service Board 45, February 13, 1942; Thomas Francis to Col. Samuel Kopetzsky, March 24, 1942; Jonas Salk to Thomas Francis, April 8, 1942; all in Jonas Salk File, Francis Papers.
36．Paul, "Thomas Francis Jr.," 69; Benison, Tom Rivers, 256.
37．Benison, Tom Rivers, 257.
38．Kolata, Flu, 3-33; Crawford, The Invisible Enemy, 96-98; Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic, 203.
39．Flu, 6-7, 16; Crawford, Invisible Enemy, 97; Grob, The Deadly Truth, 224-25.
40．Susan Plotkin and Stanley Plotkin, "A Short History of Vaccination," in Plotkin and Mortimer, Vaccines, 1-7; Dowling, Fighting Infection, 197-200.
離開西奈山前往安娜堡前夕，索爾克寫信告訴弗朗西斯：「現在我們這有一位病人，按照醫院工作人員的說法，他們在1918年的大流行中見過與她類似的臨床現象和臨床病程。我們尚未發現細菌病原體，我相信她很快就會死去。」 Jonas Salk to Thomas Francis, February 7, 1942, Jonas Salk File, Francis Papers.
41．Author's interview with Darrell Salk, February 19, 2003; Carter, Breakthrough, 45; Federal Bureau of Investigation, "Subject: Jonas Salk."
42．Thomas Francis Jr., "Draft of Grant Proposal to the National Foundation," n.d., Box 51; Henry Vaughan to Basil O'Connor, June 26, 1942; Basil O'Connor to Alexander Ruthven, President, University of Michigan, April 8, 1943, both in Box 51, Francis Papers.國家基金會為索爾克提供了為期三年、總額20萬美元的資金，是當時基金會金額最大的資助之一。
43．索爾克在學術界的上升之路，見Dean H. F. Vaughan to Jonas Salk, June 10, 1943; Vaughan to Salk, October 16, 1944; Thomas Francis to Provost James P. Adams, June 26, 1946; Herbert G. Watkins (University Secretary) to Salk, July 29, 1946.延期入伍事宜，可參見Francis G. Blake Affidavit, October 21, 1943; Henry F. Vaughan to Clarence Moll, June 14, 1944; Thomas Francis to Clarence Moll, January 18, 1945; all in Jonas Salk File, Francis Papers.索爾克的引言，見Carter, Breakthrough, 48.
44．Carter, Breakthrough, 51; Hershel Griffin, "Thomas Francis Jr., MD: Epidemiologist to the Military," Archives of Environmental Health, September 1970, 252-55; Cohen, Shots in the Dark, 26; Carter, Breakthrough, 48.
45．Dowling, Fighting Infection, 200; Williams, Virus Hunters, 223-27.
46．Williams, Virus Hunters, 225; Brian Murphy and Robert Webster, "Orthomyxoviruses," in Virology (2nd ed.), ed. Bernard N. Fields, 1116-20; Crawford, Invisible Enemy, 92, 229; Thomas Francis to Carolyn Kingdon, November 1, 1947, Box 51, Francis Papers.
47．Carter, Breakthrough, 51.
48．Ibid.
49．Ibid.; Benison, Tom Rivers, 258; Williams, Virus Hunter, 212.
1948年，弗朗西斯入選美國國家科學院，當時索爾克已經去往匹茲堡，他給弗朗西斯發去了賀信：「這真的很棒，有時候你懷疑自己浪費了時間和精力，入選科學院也許能讓你打消這樣的疑慮。」見Jonas Salk to Thomas Francis, May 17, 1948, Box 5, Salk Papers.
50．Carter, Breakthrough, 51.
51．Paul Stumpf to Jonas Salk, n.d., Box 4, Folder 8, Salk Papers.
52．Thomas Francis, "Memorandum: Concerning Doctor Salk and Parke-Davis & Company," September 1, 1945, Jonas Salk File, Francis Papers.
53．Jonas Salk to Thomas Francis, December 26, 1945, Jonas Salk File, Francis Papers.
54．Max Lauffer to Jonas Salk, June 30, 1947, Salk File, Edward Litchfield Papers, University of Pittsburgh Archive; Carter, Breakthrough, 53.
55．Jonas Salk to Thomas Francis, August 25, 1947, Jonas Salk File, Francis Papers.
56．Willard Glazier, "The Great Furnace of America," in Pittsburgh, ed. Roy Lubove, 1976, 23.
57．Michael Weber, Don't Call Me Boss: David L. Lawrence, Pittsburgh's Renaissance Mayor, 1988, 202-3; Lubove. Pittsburgh, 196.
58．"Pittsburgh's New Powers," Fortune, February, 1947, 69-74; Jonas Salk to Stella Barlow, n.d., Salk Papers.
59．Weber, Don't Call Me Boss, 228-76; Robert C. Alberts, Pitt: The Story of the University of Pittsburgh, 1986, 204-9.
60．Alberts, Pitt, 207.
61．Barbara Paull, A Century of Medical Excellence: A History of the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 1986, 99 100; Julius Youngner, unpublished autobiography, 39, copy in author's possession.
62．Paull, Century of Medical Excellence, 145-50, 172-74.
63．Ibid, 211; Max Lauffer, "Memorandum: The Virus Research Program," May 22, 1950, University of Pittsburgh Archive.
作為這個職位的候選人，索爾克曾提交過一份願望清單，其中包括額外的實驗室空間、飼養動物的場所、一位秘書、一位技師、7500美元的期望年薪以及「合作研究教授」的第二頭銜。不過，他並不認為這些「要求」是他履職的「必要條件」。事實上，索爾克補充說，「如果你能盡力做一些有必要做的事情，我會非常感激。」見University of Pittsburgh Archive.
64．Jonas Salk to John Dingle, August 27, 1947, Folder 5, Box 4, Salk Papers; Carter, Breakthrough, 53.
65．Carter, Breakthrough, 54; Jonas Salk to Paul Stumpf, November 26, 1947, Box 4, Folder 8, Salk Papers.
66．Jonas Salk to Dr. W. S. McEllroy, December 9, 1947, Box 4, Folder 7, Salk Papers
67．Ibid.
68．Ibid.; Alberts, Pitt, 216.
7
1．Benison, Tom Rivers, 405.
2．Harry Weaver, "A Formula to Determine the Cost of Research," Journal of the American Medical Colleges, July 1950.
3．Ibid.
4．Benison, Tom Rivers, 444-45; Harry Weaver, "A Formula to Determine the Total Cost of Conducting a Program of Research," in Medical Program, Series 8, Box 8, March of Dimes Archives, White Plains, N.Y. (hereafter cited as MDA).
5．H. W. Weaver to H. Van Riper, "Memorandum Re Payment of Direct Costs," February 1, 1951; Harry Weaver to R. W. Brown, October 17, 1952, both in Medical Program, Series 8 Box 8, "Indirect Costs, 1947—1959," MDA.
6．H. W. Weaver to H. Van Riper, "Memorandum Re Policies Governing Long-Term Grants," April 24, 1947, MDA.
7．Basil O'Connor to Thomas Rivers, July 21, 1947, Basil O'Connor File 6, Thomas Rivers Papers, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.
8．Quoted in Henry Lee, "No More Polio," Pageant, November 1953, 18.
9．Carter, Breakthrough, 61-62; also Harry Weaver to Jonas Salk, December 15, 1947, Box 4, Folder 8; August 13, 1948, Folder 5, Box 5, Jonas Salk Papers, Mandeville Special Collections, University of California, San Diego (hereafter cited as Salk Papers).
10．See, "Chronology of Events in Salk Research for Polio Vaccine," Jonas Salk File, Edward Litchfield Papers, University of Pittsburgh; Salk to Weaver, July 27, 1948, Salk Papers.
11．Salk to Weaver, August 24, 1948, Folder 5, Box 5, Salk Papers; Carter, Breakthrough, 107.喬納斯的長子彼得·索爾克回憶說：「我父親特別重視巡視病區的事兒。人們會流著淚來到他身邊。『求求你了，索爾克博士，求你救救我們的孩子。』那樣的悲痛欲絕，他一直銘記。」 Author's interview with Peter Salk, November 22,2002.
12．"Research Funds for Pitt Medical School," Box 296, Salk Papers.
13．Neil Seidenberg, "Men and Scenes Behind Salk Vaccine," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, April 12, 1955; Leonard Engel, "Climax of a Stirring Medical Drama," New York Times Sunday Magazine, January 10, 1954; "Vaccine's Name Irks Salk," Pittsburgh Press, April 12, 1955; "Age of Salk's Aides Averages Under 40," New York Times, April 12, 1945; "The Story Behind the Polio Vaccine," Wisdom, August 1956, 10-16; F. S. Cheever, "Leadership Qualities Draw Skilled, Devoted Workers," Pittsburgh Sun-Telegraph, August 4, 1959; Salk Team's Mr.
Inside' Honored for Work on Polio Vaccine, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, August 9, 2001. Also Smith, Patenting the Sun, 115-17; Carter, Breakthrough, 69-71; Jonas Salk to Harry Weaver, August 24, 1948, Folder 5, Box 5, Salk Papers.
14．Harry Weaver to Jonas Salk, March 11 (two letters that day), 1949, Folder: 1949, W-Z, Box 6, Salk Papers.
15．Gordon Brown to Jonas Salk, June 17, 1949, Folder: 1949, A-C, Box 5, Ibid.
16．Ibid.
17．Thomas Francis to John Lavan, January 31, 1944, Box 51, Thomas Francis Papers, Bentley Library, University of Michigan; Cohn, Four Billion Dimes, 82.
18．See "Many Monkeys Needed in Vaccine," in M. Beddow Bayly, The Story of the Salk Anti-Poliomyelitis Vaccine, 1956, https://whale.to/vaccine/bayley.
19．Ibid.
20．Thomas Francis to J. N. Hamlet (Director, Okatie Farms), July 15, 1950; Hamlet to Francis, September 21, 1950, File: Monkeys, Box 5, Thomas Francis Papers; "The Unsung Heroes," Newsweek, April 25, 1955; Smith, Patenting the Sun, 121.
21．Carter, Breakthrough, 79.
22．Ibid., 81.
23．Jonas Salk to Albert Sabin, April 15, May 1, 1949, Folder: 1949, P-V, Box 6; Albert Sabin to Jonas Salk, June 20, 1951, Folder 3, Box 281; all in Salk Papers.
24．Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, 234-35.
25．Albert Sabin to Jonas Salk, February 23, 1951; Salk to Sabin, March 1, 1951; both in Folder 3, Box 281, Salk Papers.
26．Friedman and Friedland, Medicine's 10 Greatest Discoveries, 133-52.
27．A. B. Sabin and P. K. Olitsky, "Cultivation of poliovirus in vitro in human embryonic tissue," Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biological Medicine, vol. 34, 1936, 357-59.
28．Benison, Tom Rivers, 237.
29．Ibid., 446; Thomas Weller and Frederick Robbins, "John Franklin Enders," unpublished manuscript in author's possession; Simmons, Doctors and Discoveries, 266-69.
30．Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, 378.
31．Weller and Robbins, "John Franklin Enders"; Frederick Robbins, "Reminiscences of a Virologist," in Daniel and Robbins, Polio, 121-25.
湯姆·韋勒和弗雷德·羅賓斯都出身於一流的科學家庭。羅賓斯的父親威廉是一位著名的植物生理學家，就職於紐約植物園。韋勒的父親卡爾是密歇根大學的病理學教授，也是索爾克導師托馬斯·弗朗西斯的密友。
32．Paul, History of Poliomyelitis, 374-75; Robbins, "Reminiscences," 126-28.
33．Robbins, "Reminiscences," 125-26; Simmons, Doctors and Discoveries, 268; Henig, The People's Health, 25-34.
34．Benison, Tom Rivers, 446-47.
35．Peter Olitsky to Albert Sabin, undated personal note, 1936, File 6, Peter Olitsky Papers, American Philosophical Society.
36．A. B. Sabin, P. K. Olitsky, and H. R. Cox, "Protective Action of Certain Chemicals Against Infection of Monkeys with Nasally Instilled Poliomyelitis Virus," Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol. 63, 193. Also Berg, Polio and Its Problems, 34-40, 41-42; Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, pp. 247-248; Benison, Tom Rivers, 191-92; Berg, Polio, pp. 41-42. A thorough account of the Toronto incident can be found in Christopher Rutty, "The Middle-Class Plague: Epidemic Polio and the Canadian State, 1936-37," Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, 1996, 277-314.
37．Albert Sabin to Dr. Steiglitz, October 14, 1936, Box 3, Albert Sabin Papers, University of Cincinnati Medical School Archives.
38．Dorothy Horstmann Interview, April 26, 1990, p. 4, in "Daniel Wilson File," Dorothy Horstmann Papers, Yale University Archives. See also Corner, A History of the Rockefeller Institute, 385; A. B. Sabin and R. Ward, "Natural History of Human Poliomyelitis; Distribution in Nervous and Non-Nervous Tissue," Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol. 73, 1941. Also Berg, Polio and Its Problems, 71.
39．H. A. Howe and D. Bodian, "Poliomyelitis in the Chimpanzee," Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital, 1941, 149-81.
40．Dorothy Horstmann Interview, 17.
41．D. M. Horstmann, "Poliomyeletic in the Blood of Orally Infected Monkeys and Chimpanzees," Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biological Medicine, vol. 79, 1952; J. F. Fulton to Dorothy Horstmann, February 19, 1953, Dorothy Horstmann Papers, Yale University Archives.
42．Paul, Poliomyelitis, 389.
8
1．"Summer Season Brings Epidemics of this Uncontrollable Disease," Life, August 15, 1949, p. 47; Steven Spencer, "Where Are We Now on Polio," Saturday Evening Post, September 17, 1949, 26-27, 87-93.
2．"Polio Can Be Conquered," National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, Public Affairs Pamphlet 150, 1949, 1.
3．Albert Sabin to Basil O'Connor, December 6, 1949, copy in Folder 1665, John Enders Papers, Manuscripts Division, Sterling Library, Yale University (hereafter cited as Enders Papers).
4．"Crusader by Accident: The Biography of Basil O'Connor," unpublished copy, March of Dimes Archives, White Plains, N.Y. (hereafter cited as MDA).
5．Jonas Salk to John Enders, September 17, 1949, Box 5, Folder 1949 (D-E), Jonas Salk Papers, Mandeville Special Collections, University of California, San Diego (hereafter cited as Salk Papers).
6．John Enders to Jonas Salk, September 26, 1949, ibid.
7．Frederick C. Robbins, "Reminiscences of a Virologist," in Daniel and Robbins, eds., Polio, 1997, 130; John Enders to Albert Sabin, December 8, 1949, Folder 1665, Enders Papers; Williams, Virus Hunters, 269.直至1951年年初，恩德斯還很願意與索爾克分享科研素材。見Enders to Salk, March 21 and April 12, 1951, Box 176, Enders File, Salk Papers.戴維·博迪恩寫給約翰·保羅的一封信裡提到了恩德斯對「化學療法」的狂熱，當時博迪恩正在為一本關於脊髓灰質炎的書搜集資料。見Bodian to Paul, May 8, 1967, David Bodian Papers, Chesney Medical Archives, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine (hereafter cited as Bodian Papers).
8．Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, 233-39, 382-89.對豪和博迪恩研究工作的最佳總結請參閱：David Bodian,"Howard Atkinson Howe," 1976; Thomas B. Turner, "David Bodian," 1980; "Introductory Remarks: Bodian Symposium in Neuroscience," 1975;以上內容均可參閱博迪恩的論文原稿。
9．Paul, History of Poliomyelitis, 237; Howard Howe to David Bodian, October 15, 21, 1940, Howard Howe File, Bodian Papers; Carter, Breakthrough, 134.
10．Bodian to Harvey, March 5, 1975, Bodian Papers; Allen, Thomas Hunt Morgan, 100-101; "Research Award Nomination for Dr. Isabel Morgan," 1943, Isabel Morgan File 2, Peter Olitsky Papers, American Philosophical Society (hereafter cited as Olitsky Papers).
11．See Business Manager to Peter Olitsky, April 21, 1938, Box 4, Correspondence, 1935—64, Peter Olitsky File, Archive of Rockefeller Institute, Sleepy Hollow, N.Y.; Benison, Tom Rivers, 409.
12．Benison, Tom Rivers, 457.
13．Peter Olitsky to Dr. William Thalmeier, December 12, 16, 1953, Box 2, Folder: Assorted Correspondence, 1952—54, Olitsky Papers.
14．Author's interview with Eleanor Bodian, June 6, 2003.
15．Ibid.
16．Talk delivered by Walter Schlesinger at the Isabel Morgan Mountain and David Bodian Memorial Symposium at the Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Mass., July 25, 1997, copy in author's possession.
17．Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 17-40.
18．Wilson, Margin of Safety, 142; Hooper, The River, 479-81.
19．H. Koprowski, T. W. Norton, and W. McDermott, "Isolation of Poliovirus from Human Serum by Direct Inoculation into a Laboratory Mouse," Public Health Reports, 1947, 1467-76.
20．Altman, Who Goes First? 126-58; Oshinsky, "Worse Than Slavery," 190-93; Elizabeth Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste: A Social History of Pellagra, 1972, 3-39.
21．Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 1-2.
22．Charles Little, "Letchworth Village: The Newest State Institution for the Feeble-Minded and Epileptic," The Survey, March 2, 1912; New York State, Office of Mental Retardation, "Letchworth Village," 2003.
23．Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 6.
24．Hilary Koprowski, "Frontiers of Virology: Development of Vaccines Against Polio Virus," in appendix to Irena Koprowski, A Woman Wanders Through Life and Science, 1997, 297-303.
25．Poliomyelitis: A New Approach, The Lancet, March 15, 1952, 552.
26．Benison, Tom Rivers, 461-69.
27．Carter, Breakthrough, 110; Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 15; Koprowski, "Frontiers of Virology: Development of Vaccines Against Polio Virus," 297-303.
28．Carol Saunders, "The Vulnerable Among Us: Protection of Children in Medical Research," Research Nurse, March/April 1996.
29．Paul Freund, "Introduction," in Experimentation With Human Subjects, xii-xviii; Altman, Who Goes First? 1-37.
30．David Bodian statement, May 6, 1960, in David Bodian File, Thomas Rivers Papers, American Philosophical Society.
31．Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 16.
32．Edmund Pellegrino, quoted in J. L. Melnick and F. Horaud, "Albert Sabin," Biologicals, December, 1993, 302.
33．Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 54-55.
34．Walter Schlesinger to Peter Olitsky, April 30, 1963, Box 3, Walter Schlesinger File, Olitsky Papers.
35．Interview with Albert Sabin, conducted by Arthur Zitrin, for the documentary "Albert B. Sabin: A Life in Science," copy on file in the archives of the New York University Medical School.
36．Ibid.
37．Ibid.
38．"William Hallock Park," Medical Violet 1939, 43, 163; "Remarks of Albert Sabin," NYU Medical Quarterly, 1987, 3; Benison, Tom Rivers, 359-62.
39．Interview with Albert Sabin.
40．Bellevue Violet 1931, 139.
41．National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, Facts and Figures about Infantile Paralysis (Publication No.59), 1947, 7-9; Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, 445.
42．Albert Sabin and Arthur Wright, Acute Ascending Myelitis Following a Monkey Bite, With the Isolation of a Virus Capable of Reproducing the Disease, Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol. 59, 1933, 115-17.
43．Benison, Tom Rivers, 234-35.
44．萊丁厄姆博士的這件趣事，見Peter Olitsky to Asa Chandler, September 16, 1954, Sabin File 2, Olitsky Papers.
45．Benison, Tom Rivers, 235; Albert Sabin to Simon Flexner, September 10, 1934; Rufus Cole to Simon Flexner, August 9, 1934; Business Manager to Peter Olitsky, October 1, 1934; all in Box 1, Folder 1, Albert Sabin Papers, Rockefeller Archive Center (hereafter cited as Sabin Papers, RA.)
46．Thomas Rivers interview with Richard Carter, quoted in Smith, Patenting the Sun, 147.
47．Igor Tamm, "Sabin at the Rockefeller," 1986, Box 1, Folder 4, Sabin Papers, RA; Walter Goebel, "Peter K. Olitsky," Peter Olitsky File, American Philosophical Society; Corner, A History of the Rockefeller Institute, 384-390.
48．Albert Sabin telegram to Peter Olitsky, September 12, 1935, Sabin File 7, Olitsky Papers.
49．See "Peter Olitsky Oral History," 58, Archive of Rockefeller Institute; Tamm, "Sabin at the Rockefeller," 5-6. "Report of Dr. Olitsky (assisted by Drs. Cox and Sabin)," Scientific Reports of the Rockefeller Institute, vol. 24, p. 86.
50．On Theiler, see Benison, Tom Rivers, 413-16, 464; Paul, History of Poliomyelitis, 263-69; Tamm, "Sabin at the Rockefeller," 6-7.
51．比如說，有一次薩賓的薪水略微漲了一點，然後他給所長寫了一封謙卑的信：「為了求得安心，我回顧了自己所做的工作，結果發現，我的成就是那麼渺小而微不足道，這簡直讓我心灰意冷。」然後，薩賓向上司保證自己將更加努力工作，追求「我們的終極目標」——解決脊髓灰質炎問題。但是，時間流逝，對於弗萊克斯納那些主要的脊髓灰質炎理論，例如脊髓灰質炎病毒只有一種、病毒通過鼻腔進入人體、病毒只能在神經組織中繁殖，薩賓逐漸產生了懷疑，最終將它們拋棄。見Albert Sabin to Simon Flexner, June 22, 1935, Box 1, Folder 1, Sabin Papers, RA.
52．Albert Sabin to Herbert Gasser, April 20, 1939, Box 1, Folder 1, Sabin Papers, RA.
53．A Graeme Mitchell to Peter Olitsky, January 23, 1940, Sabin File 8, Olitsky Papers.
54．New York Herald-Tribune, June 23, 1939; New York Times, March 10, 17, 1940.
55．Albert Sabin to Peter Olitsky, June 27, 1939, File 8, Olitsky Papers.
56．Albert Sabin to Peter Olitsky, June 6, 1939, Sabin File 7, Olitsky Papers; Albert Sabin to John Paul, May 14, 1941, Box 8 (1940—41), John Paul Papers, Yale University Archives.
57．Albert Sabin to Peter Olitsky, June 17, 1941, Sabin File 7, Olitsky Papers.
58．Peter Olitsky to Albert Sabin (no date), Sabin File 1, Olitsky Papers.
59．薩賓的目標是研製出這兩種疾病的疫苗。他甚至將病毒樣本帶回了美國，他說，他希望能「在某些精神病機構裡的志願者身上」進行對照試驗。結果，他找了囚犯當志願者。薩賓高調地給「志願者」「感染」了病毒——報紙頭條寫道：「200名囚犯冒著死亡風險參與戰爭病研究項目」。所有受試者都活了下來，雖然有些人經受了「相當的痛苦」。但新聞中並未提到當局承諾為囚犯提供的回報：減刑和某些額外的特權。見New York Daily News, August 27, 1944; Trenton Times, August 28, 1944; Albert Sabin to Peter Olitsky, August 22, 1943, File 12, Olitsky Papers.
60．Sabin to Olitsky, August 22, 1943, Olitsky Papers; Albert Sabin, "Problems in the Epidemiology of Poliomyelitis At Home and Among Our Armed Forces," paper presented at the Rocky Mountain Conference on Infantile Paralysis, December 1946.
9
1．Oshinsky, A Conspiracy So Immense, 95-96.
2．Alonso Hamby, Man of the People, 1995, 428-29; Eleanor Bontecou, The Federal Loyalty-Security Program, 1953, 35-72.
3．Jonas Salk's FBI Headquarters File Number is 121-22866.1942年，《今日社工》上的一篇文章稱讚了索爾克和其他幾個人，文章宣稱：「這幾位男士和女士讓《今日社工》變得更加強大，足以應對現在的嚴酷挑戰。」它還稱索爾克為「主要合作者」。
4．Bontecou, Federal Loyalty-Security Program, 74-75.
5．See especially, Memo, August 8, 1950, Detroit FBI Office; Memo, August 16, 1950, New York City FBI Office; Memo, August 29, 1950, Los Angeles FBI Office, all in Salk FBI File.
6．Report of Special Agent, August 8, 10, 1950, Detroit; August 29, 1950, Washington; both in Salk FBI File.
7．"Jonas Edward Salk, Synopsis of Facts," August 30, 1951, Salk FBI File.
8．Report of Special Agent, September 8, 1951, San Francisco; September 17, 1951, Dallas; both in Salk FBI File.
9．Hiram Bingham, Chairman, Loyalty Review Board, U.S. Civil Service Commission, to J. Edgar Hoover, FBI Director, November 7, 1952, Salk FBI File.
10．Author's interview with Darrell Salk, February 18, 2003.
11．Memo, August 10, 1950, Pittsburgh FBI Office, in Salk FBI File.
12．Julius Youngner, Unpublished Memoir, 12; copy in author's possession.
13．On Donna Salk, see Pittsburgh Sun-Telegram, April 12, 1955, July 3, 1960; Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, July 24, 1959, December 30, 1960.
14．Jonas Salk to Harry Weaver, April 10, 1949, Box 5, Folder 5, Jonas Salk Papers, Mandeville Special Collections, University of California, San Diego (hereafter cited as Salk Papers).
15．Salk to Weaver, June 16, 1950, Box 91, Folder 8, Salk Papers.
16．Ibid.
17．Weaver to Salk, June 22, 1950, Salk papers.
18．See Jonas Salk for the Standards Committee, NFIP, "Immunologic Classification of Poliomyelitis Viruses," for Presentation at Second International Poliomyelitis Congress, September, 1951, Copenhagen, Denmark, copy in Polio Correspondence, 1952, General, Box 4, Albert Sabin Papers, University of Cincinnati.
19．Carter, Breakthrough, 114.
20．See "Polio Hits Basil O'Connor's Daughter," 87-93, in Cohn, Four Billion Dimes.
21．Carter, Breakthrough, 121.
22．Ibid., 141; Vivien Encel, Australian Genius: 50 Great Ideas, 1988, 55-57.
23．Youngner, Unpublished Memoir, 1-7; Neil Seidenberg, "Men and Scenes Behind Salk Vaccine," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, April 12, 1955; "Age of Salk's Aides Averages Under 40," New York Times, April 12, 1945; author's interview with Julius Youngner, March 17, 2004.
24．Younger, Unpublished Memoir, 5-7.
25．Ibid. Also Troan, Passport to Adventure, 185-89.
26．Younger, Unpublished Memoir, 5-7. Also Benison, Tom Rivers, 542-43.
27．對199培養基的最佳介紹及康諾特實驗室在脊髓灰質炎研究中扮演的角色，請參閱ch.7 in Christopher Rutty, "Do Something! ...Do Anything! Poliomyelitis in Canada, 1927-1962," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto, 1995.
28．Wilson, Margin of Safety, 77.
29．Carter, Breakthrough, 106.
30．See Jonas Salk, "Studies in Human Subjects on Active Immunization Against Poliomyelitis," Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 151, no. 13, 1088-93.
Ⅲ型病毒株來自13歲的吉米·薩科特（Jimmy Sarkett）。醫院裡的文員寫錯了樣本瓶的標籤，把他的名字拼成了索科特（Saukett）。
31．Youngner, "Unpublished Memoir," 7-10; author's interview with Youngner; Carter, Breakthrough, 185, Troan, Passport to Adventure, 189.
32．Benison, Tom Rivers, 490-99; William McD. Hammon, "Standardization Problems Encountered in the Large Scale Manufacture of Poliomyelitis Vaccine in the United States," 1954, unpublished paper in author's possession.
33．Carter, Breakthrough, 131-36.
至少可以說，索爾克的技術報告對薩賓的影響比他願意承認的更大。幾個月後，薩賓寫信詢問索爾克「你是否願意讓我的合作夥伴J.Wissner博士去你的實驗室呆幾天，學習你們的組織培養技術？如果有必要的話還可以多呆一段日子。」索爾克同意了。見Albert Sabin to Jonas Salk, March 18, 1952, Box 2, Albert Sabin Papers, University of Cincinnati.
34．關於索爾克何時給自己及兒子接種的疫苗，有一些互相矛盾的說法。熟識索爾克的匹茲堡記者約翰·特羅安寫道：「前往波爾克之前，索爾克醫生給妻子、三個兒子和自己接種了疫苗。」這應該是1952年。索爾克的傳記作者理查德·卡特在20世紀60年代詳細採訪了索爾克，根據他的說法，索爾克一家接種疫苗的時間是1953年，也就是沃森兒童之家和波爾克學校的首次試驗之後。唐娜·索爾克不記得確切的時間，但她表示丈夫在自家的廚房裡給全家接種了疫苗，包括他自己。達雷爾·索爾克印證了這一說法。「我記得很清楚，」他說，「一天晚上，喬納斯回到家裡，讓我們排好隊，然後，砰地一下子……就接種好了。」
《紐約時報》通訊記者勞倫斯·奧爾特曼（Lawrence Altman）曾詢問過索爾克是什麼時候給自己接種的疫苗。1970年，索爾克的一位助手告訴奧爾特曼，索爾克沒有接種疫苗，因為他知道自己體內有脊髓灰質炎抗體。幾年後，在一次科學會議上，奧爾特曼偶遇索爾克，於是他直接提出了這個問題。「我問索爾克，你給兒子接種了疫苗，為什麼你自己卻沒有接種。我說，雖然你體內有抗體，但是至少你可以測試一下疫苗的安全性。索爾克堅持說自己注射了疫苗。我又問他，那為什麼……（以前的）說法不一樣，他說，這是因為他都不知道為什麼會有人問這個問題。」
更讓人迷惑的是，索爾克實驗室的工作人員宣稱，對外進行疫苗試驗之前，實驗室內部人員已經注射了疫苗。事實上，一毛錢進行曲檔案館裡有一張未標注日期的索爾克照片，照片裡他捲起右臂的袖子，有一位同事正在給他注射脊髓灰質炎疫苗。Troan, Passport to Adventure, 196; Carter, Breakthrough, 170. For Donna Salk, see Seavey, Smith, and Wagner, A Paralyzing Fear, 202; author's interview with Darrell Salk, February 18, 2003; Altman, Who Goes First? 358-59.
35．See Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, "Mental Patients ...Vaccine Research," August 10, 1944, Box 92, Folder 4, Salk Papers.
36．See Gale H. Walker to William C. Brown (Pennsylvania Secretary of Welfare), February 4, 1952, Box 92, Folder 4, Salk Papers.
37．Benison, Tom Rivers, 467.
38．Christine Kindl, "The Creation of a Cure: D. T. Watson Rehabilitation Hospital," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, September 9, 1990; Smith, Patenting the Sun, 140-42.
39．"Volunteers Recount Their Participation in Historic Trials," June 24, 1995; "Polio Pioneers," July 2, 2002; both in Pittsburgh Post-Gazette.
40．Troan, Passport to Adventure, 193-95.
41．「志願者追憶當年……」拄著枴杖的科克帕特裡克念完了富蘭克林·馬歇爾學院（Franklin and Marshall College）。「我發現自己不適合搞醫學。」後來，他成了一位聖公會牧師。
42．Carter, Breakthrough, 139.
43．Salk, "Studies in Human Subjects," 1098; Carter, Breakthrough, 140.
10
1．Cohen, Shots in the Dark, 31.
2．Washington Post, July 4, 1952; Memo from Roland Berg to Marguerite Clark, July 16, 1952, copy in Polio Epidemic File, Newsweek Morgue, Center for American History, University of Texas, Austin.
3．See Neal Nathanson and John Martin, "The Epidemiology of Poliomyelitis: Enigmas Surrounding the Appearance, Epidemicity, and Disappearance," American Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 110, 1979, 672-90.
4．Ibid., 675; Albert Sabin, "The Epidemiology of Poliomyelitis," JAMA, vol. 134, 1947, 750.
5．Sabin, Epidemiology of Poliomyelitis, 755-756; also Monroe Lerner and Odin Anderson, Health Progress in the United States, 1963, 152-56.
6．Karl Schriftgiesser, "When 11 of 14 Children Were Hit with Polio," Collier's, November 29, 1952, 17-20.
7．Max J. Fox and John Chamberlain, "Four Fatal Cases of Bulbar Poliomyelitis in One Family," JAMA, March 28, 1953, 1099 1101.
8．T. Francis Jr. et al., "Poliomyelitis Following Tonsillectomy in 5 Members of a Family," Epidemiologic Study, August 22, 1942, 1392.
9．Alice Heaton, "A Friend-and Partner," Good Housekeeping, July 1953, 17, 209-10; "Basil O'Connor: One Man's War Against Disease," Medical World News, January 31, 1964; Dorothy Horstmann interview, 27, in Daniel Wilson File, Dorothy Horstmann Papers, Yale University Archives.
10．"Crusader By Accident: The Biography of Basil O'Connor," unpublished, copy, March of Dimes Archives; for various memoranda, see "Presidential Directives to Staff, 1942—47," Box 3, Basil O'Connor Papers, MDA.
11．Beaton, "Friend-and Partner," 210; Troan, Passport to Adventure, 210.
12．Carter, Breakthrough, 144.
13．Benison, Tom Rivers, 499. Also "Joseph M. Smadel, M.D.," Lasker Foundation Award Winners, www.laskerfoundation.org/awards/library; Thomas Woodward, "History of the Commissions on Immunization and Rickettsial Diseases," https://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/historiesofcomsn/section7.htm.
14．Benison, Tom Rivers, 496-98.
15．Troan, Passport to Adventure, 198.
16．Ibid.; Pittsburgh Press, January 27, 28, 1953.
17．"Vaccine for Polio," Time, February 9, 1953, 43.
18．Albert Sabin to Jonas Salk, February 9, 1953, Box 93, Folder 5, Jonas Salk Papers, Mandeville Special Collections, University of California, San Diego.
19．John Paul to Jonas Salk, January 28, 1953, quoted in Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, 419.
20．Jonas Salk to John Paul, February 2, 1953, ibid.
21．Wilson, Margin of Safety, 85.
22．Benison, Tom Rivers, vii-xiii, 499.
23．Ibid., 499-501; Carter, Breakthrough, 150-51.
24．Carter, Breakthrough, 152.
25．Ibid., 156.
26．Ibid., 158.
27．A full copy of Salk's text can be found in the Pittsburgh Sun-Telegraph, March 27, 1953.
28．Ibid., Pittsburgh Sun-Telegraph, March 27, April 2, 1953.
29．Carter, Breakthrough, 176.
30．Benison, Tom Rivers, 502-3; "Basil O'Connor: One Man's War Against Disease," 12.
11
1．Author's interview with Darrell Salk, February 19, 2003; author's interview with Peter Salk, November 22, 2002; Shirley Levine, "Dr. Jonas E. Salk—Scientist with a Mission," Pittsburgh Jewish Outlook, April 10, 1953.
2．財務報告及僱員名單，見Jonas Salk to Dean W. S. McEllroy, January 10, 1953, June 10, 1953, Box 298, Folder 8, Jonas Salk Papers, Mandeville Special Collections, University of California, San Diego (hereafter cited as Salk Papers); Carter, Breakthrough, 212; interview with Don Wegemer, in Seavey, Smith, and Wagner, A Paralyzing Fear, 191-98.
3．Author's interview with Julius Youngner, March 19, 2004.
4．Younger, "Unpublished Memoir," 6-20.
5．"Joseph A. Bell: A Biographical Appreciation," American Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 90, 1969, 464-67; Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, 422-23; Benison, Tom Rivers, 506-11.
6．Carter, Breakthrough, 177.
7．Joseph A. Bell, "Outline of Considerations and Tentative General Plans for an Epidemiologic Field Trial of a Poliomyelitis Vaccine," September 8, 1953, Folder 4, Box 123, Salk Papers.
8．Albert Sabin, "Present Status and Future Possibilities of a Vaccine for the Control of Poliomyelitis," unpublished, copy in author's possession.
9．Carter, Breakthrough, 179.
10．Benison, Tom Rivers, 509.裡弗斯承認，委員會的過度謹慎讓索爾克的任務變得更加艱巨，但他沒有提到，委員會曾向該領域著名專家弗朗西斯徵求意見，弗朗西斯充滿信心地表示，脊髓灰質炎疫苗裡的佐劑安全有效，而且該佐劑「所有已知特性均與致癌無關」。然後，弗朗西斯建議對（含有佐劑的）索爾克疫苗進行「人體試驗」，他表示，「我之所以得出這樣的結論，部分是因為我對索爾克博士的工作相對比較熟悉」。但委員會最終拒絕了他的提議。Thomas Francis to Harry Weaver, February 19, 1953, National Foundation File, Box 51, Thomas Francis Papers.
11．Carter, Breakthrough, 191-93.
12．Ibid., 177-78.
13．Harry Weaver to Basil O'Connor, August 29, September 1, 1953, Basil O'Connor Papers, March of Dimes Archive, White Plains, N.Y.
有人認為，韋弗之所以離開基金會，是因為對於大規模試驗的具體安排，他與自己的直接上司，基金會醫學督導哈特·范裡佩爾持有不同意見，經過一番爭鬥，韋弗失敗退出。顯然，韋弗希望貝爾和疫苗顧問委員會為他提供建議，但重要的決定應該由他來拍板。范裡佩爾是一位兒科醫生，韋弗覺得他的份量不夠，沒什麼理由信任他。
但范裡佩爾的能量不小，他與巴塞爾·奧康納十分親厚，而且與醫學界關係密切。要成功完成全國性試驗，他與醫生、護士和公共衛生官員的關係十分重要。總體考量之下，韋弗的離開讓奧康納鬆了口氣。「他曾為我們指明航向，而且他很有才華，」奧康納說，「現在我們已經進入了港口，而他表現得好像他是唯一應該站在橋上的人。」
Carter, Breakthrough, 181-85.
14．Benison, Tom Rivers, 511; Joseph A. Bell,"Outline of Considerations and Tentative General Plans," Salk Papers.
15．Carter, Breakthrough, 187; "Joseph A. Bell: A Biographical Appreciation," 466.
16．Thomas Rivers to Basil O'Connor, December 3, 1953, Basil O'Connor File 5, Thomas Rivers Papers, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.
17．Albert Sabin to Aims McGuiness, December 15, 22, 1953, Box 5, Albert Sabin Papers, University of Cincinnati (hereafter cited as Sabin Papers, UC).
18．Howard Howe to Albert Sabin, December 29, 1953, Sabin Papers, UC.
19．David Bodian to Albert Sabin, December 9, 1953, Sabin File, David Bodian Papers, Chesney Library, Johns Hopkins Medical School.
20．Thomas Francis to Albert Sabin, December 22, 1953, Box 5, Sabin Papers UC.
21．Carter, Breakthrough, 202-6.
22．Thomas Francis to Harry Weaver, December 29, 1953, Folder: NFIP, Box 51, Thomas Francis Papers, Bentley Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Francis Papers).
23．Carter, Breakthrough, 205-6.
24．"Meeting of Advisory Group on Evaluation of Vaccine Field Trials—Hotel Commodore, New York," January 11, 1954, in Francis Papers.
25．Carter, Breakthrough, 203.
26．Ibid., 204.
27．Paul Meier, "Polio Trial: An Early Efficient Clinical Trial," Statistics in Medicine, vol. 9, 13-16.
28．Hart Van Riper to Carl Neupert, State Health Officer, Wisconsin, November 19, 1953, in File NFIP/Van Riper, Box 16, Francis Papers.
29．Hart Van Riper, "Brief Background Statement for the Polio Vaccine Trial," Francis Papers.
30．Thomas Francis Jr., "Evaluation of the 1954 Poliomyelitis Vaccine Field Trial," JAMA, August 6, 1955, 1266-70; Liza Dawson, "The Salk Polio Vaccine Trial of 1954: Risks, Randomization and Public Involvement in Research,"