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第六章至第八章

William Fitzhugh 與Elisabeth Ward共同編輯的Vikings:The North Atlanta Saga(Washington, D.C.:Smithsonian Institution Press, 2000)內含許多彩色插圖,全書共有31章,詳細地介紹了維京社會、維京人在歐洲的擴張及維京人在北大西洋建立的殖民地。若要簡明版的,可參閱Eric Christiansen寫的The Norsemen in the Viking Age(Oxford:Blackwell, 2002)及F.Donald Logan寫的The Vikings in History, 2nd ed.(New York:Routledge, 1991),還有Else Roestahl寫的The Vikings(New York:Penguin, 1987)。Gwyn Jones的Vikings:The North Atlantic Saga, 2nd ed.(Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1986)以及G.J.Marcus的The Conquest of the North Atlantic(New York:Oxford University Press, 1981)則把焦點放在維京人在冰島、格陵蘭島和文蘭等北大西洋殖民地的發展情況。Jones在書中還收錄了維京英雄們傳奇故事的英譯,其中有冰島人之書、文蘭英雄傳奇和Einar Sokkason的故事。

關於冰島歷史,最近出版的兩本書值得一看。一本是Jesse Byock的Viking Age Iceland(New York:Penguin Putnam, 2001), 這本書是以他以前寫的Medieval Iceland:Society, Sagas, and Present(Berkeley:University of California Press, 1988)一書為基礎寫就的,對冰島的介紹止於邦聯時期(1262—1264);還有一本是Gunnar Karlsson的Iceland's 1100 Years:The History of a Marginal Society(London:Hurst, 2000),不僅涵蓋了冰島的中古時期,還涉及現代冰島部分。在Judith Maizels與Chris Caseldine編輯的Environmental Change in Iceland, Past and Present(Dordrecht:Kluwer, 1991)一書中,收錄了多位作者的文章,專門研究冰島環境史。Kirsten Hastrup在Island of Anthropology:Studies in Past and Present Iceland(Viborg:Odense University Press, 1990)中收錄了自己寫的以冰島為主題的人類學研究報告。The Sagas of Icelanders:A Selection(New York:Penguin, 1997)一書中有17篇維京人的英譯傳奇故事(內有2篇文蘭傳奇),這些故事選自五卷本的The Complete Sagas of Icelanders(Reykjavik:Leifur Eiriksson, 1997)。

有兩篇論文論及冰島的景觀變化:Andrew Dugmore等人發表的 「Tephrochronology, environmental change and the Norse settlement of Iceland」(Environmental Archaeology 5:21-34(2000)),和Ian Simpson等人的論文「Crossing the thresholds:human ecology and historical patterns of landscape degradation」(Catena 42:175-192(2001))。由於每種昆蟲對於棲息地和氣候條件的要求都不相同,Paul Buckland與其同事通過對從考古遺址中保存下來的昆蟲做研究,找出環境指標。他們的研究報告有Gudrun Sveinbjarnardottir等人發表的「Landscape change in Eyjafjallasveit,Southern Iceland」(Norsk Geog, Tidsskr 36:75-88(1982));Paul Buckland等人發表的「Late Holocene palaeoecology at Ketilsstadir in Myrdalur, South Iceland」(Jokull 36:41-5(1986));Paul Buckland等人發表的「Holt in Eyjafjallasveit, Iceland:a paleoecological study of the impact of Landnam」(Acta Archaeologica 61:252-271(1991)):Gudrun Sveinbjarnardottir等人發表的「Shielings in Iceland:an archaeological and historical survey」(Acta Archaeologica:61:74-96(1991));Paul Buckland等人寫的「Palaeoecological investigations at Reykholt, Western Iceland,」收錄於C.D.Morris與D.J.Rackhan編輯的Norse and Later Settlement and Subsistence in the North Atlantic(Glasgow:Glasgow University Press, 1992), pp.149-168;Colleen Batey等人編輯的The Viking Age in Caithness, Orkney and the North Atlantic(Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press, 1993)書中收錄了Paul Buckland等人合寫的論文「An insect's eye-view of the Norse farm,」pp.518-528。還有Kevin Edwards等人發表的「Landscapes at Landnam:palynological and palaeoentomological evidence from Toftanes,Faroe Islands」(Frodskaparrit 46:177-192(1998))同樣以昆蟲為切入點,以了解法羅群島氣候變化。

關於維京人在格陵蘭的發展,下面兩本書裡有詳細的資料:Kirsten Seaver寫的The Frozen Echo:Greenland and Exploration of North America ca.A.D.1000-1500(Stanford, Calif.:Stanford University Press, 1996);以及Finn Gad寫的The History of Greenland, vol.Ⅰ:Earliest Times to 1700(Montreal:McGill-Queen's University Press, 1971)。Finn Gad其後又寫了一本The History of Greenland, vol.Ⅱ:1700-1782(Montreal:McGill-Queen's University Press, 1973),探討了格陵蘭島再次為世人發現和丹麥人在此殖民的情形。Niels Lynnerup在他的專著The Greenland Norse:A Biologic-Anthropological Study(Copenhagen:Commission for Scientific Research in Greenland, 1998)裡對格陵蘭出土的維京人的骨骸進行了分析。至於因紐特人在格陵蘭以及在他們之前來到格陵蘭發展的美洲土著,下面兩本文集可供參考:Martin Appelt與Hans Christian Gullov等人編輯的Late Dorset in High Arctic Greenland(Copenhagen:Danish Polar Center, 1999)和Martin Appelt等人編輯的Identities and Cultural Contacts in the Arctic(Copenhagen:Danish Polar Center, 2000)。Jens Peder Hart Hansen等人編輯的The Greenland Mummies(London:British Museum Press, 1991)詳細描述了在格陵蘭出土的因紐特人的屍體,其中有六個女人、一個孩子和一個嬰兒。這些人大約埋葬於1475年,由於格陵蘭氣候干冷,使得這些屍體和衣服沒有腐爛,保存完好。該書封面就是那個六個月死嬰的臉部照片,讓人難以忘懷。

近20年來,關於維京人在格陵蘭的考古遺址,最重要的兩個系列研究出自Thomas McGovern和 Jette Arneborg 及他們的同事。McGovern的論文有「The Vinland adventure:a North Atlantic perspective」(North American Archaeologist 2:285-308(1985));Thomas McGovern的「Contributions to the paleoeconomy of the Norse Greenland」(Acta Archaeologica 54:73-122(1985));Thomas McGovern等人合寫的「Northern islands, human era, and environmental degradation:a view of social and ecological change in the medieval North Atlantic」(Human Ecology 16:225-270(1988));Thomas McGovern寫的「Climate, correlation, and causation in Norse Greenland」(Arctic Anthropology 28:77-100(1991));Thomas McGovem等人合寫的「A vertebrate zooarchaeology of Sandnes V51:economic change at a chieftain's farm in West Greenland」(Arctic Anthropology 33:94-121(1996));Thomas Amorosi等人寫的「Raiding the landscape:human impact from the Scandinavian North Atlantic」(Human Ecology 25:491-518(1997));以及Tom Amorosi等人合寫的「They did not live by grass alone:the politics and paleoecology of animal fodder in the North Atlantic region」(Environmental Archaeology Ⅰ:41-54(1998))。Arneborg的論文包括Jette Arneborg的「The Roman church in Norse Greenland」(Acta Archaeologica 61:142-150(1990))和「Contact between Eskimos and Norsemen in Greenland:a review of the evidence」。第二篇論文被收錄於Tvaerfaglige Vikingesymposium(Aarhus, Denmark:Aarhus University, 1993), pp.23-35;還有論文「Burgundian caps, Basques and dead Norsemen at Herjolfsnaes Greenland」收錄在Nationalmuseets Arbejdsmark(Copenhagen:Nationalmuseet, 1996), pp.75-83。還有Jette Arneborg等人合作發表的 「Change of diet of the Greenland Vikings determined from stable carbon isotope analysis and 14C dating of their bones」(Radiocarbon 41:157-168(1999))。由Arneborg 與她的同事們在格陵蘭西聚落厚沙層下挖掘出著名的遺址「沙下農場」。在Jette Arneborg 和Hans Christian Gullov合作編輯的論文集Man, Culture and Environment in Ancient Greenland(Copenhagen:Danish Polar Center, 1998)中收錄了一些關於沙下農場等遺址的論文。C.L .Vebaek也在Meddelelser om Gronland, Man and Society, Copenhagen上發表了三篇論文(編號為14、17、18(1991、1992、1993)),描述他從1945年到1962年在格陵蘭的考古研究:The Church Topography of the Eastern Settlement and the Excavation of the Benedictine Convent at Narsarsuaq in the Uunartoq Fjord;Vatnahverfi:An Inland District of the Eastern Settlement in Greenland;以及Narsaq:A Norse Landnama Farm

關於維京人在格陵蘭的其他論文還有如下幾篇:Robert McGhee發表的 「Contact between Native North Americans and the medieval Norse:a review of the evidence」(American Antiquity 49:4-26(1984));Joel Berglund的「The decline of the Norse settlements in Greenland」(Arctic Anthropology 23:109-135(1986));Svend Albrethsen與Christian Keller合作發表的「The use of the saeter in medieval Norse farming in Greenland」(Arctic Anthropology 23:91-107(1986));Christian Keller的「Vikings in the West Atlantic:a model of Norse Greenlandic medieval society」(Acta Archaeologica 61:126-141(1990));Bent Fredskild的論文「Agriculture in a marginal area:South Greenland from the Norse landnam(1985 A.D.)to the present 1985 A.D.,」收錄於Hilary Birks等人編輯的The Cultural Landscape:Past,Present and Future(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp.381-393;Bent Fredskild的論文「Erosion and vegetational changes in South Greenland caused by agriculture」(Geografisk Tidsskrift 92:14-21(1992));還有Bjarne Jakobsen的「Soil resources and soil erosion in the Norse Settlement area of Osterbygden in southern Greenland」(Acta Borealia 1:56-68(1991))。